Foundations of Thermodynamics and Chemistry. 1 Introduction Preface Model-Building Simulation... 5 References...

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1 Contents Part I Foundations of Thermodynamics and Chemistry 1 Introduction Preface Model-Building Simulation... 5 References Reciprocating Engines Energy Conversion Geometry of the Crankshaft Drive Thermodynamics of the Internal Combustion Engine Foundations Closed Cycles Open Comparative Processes Parameters and Characteristic Values Engine Maps Spark Ignition Engines Diesel Engines References Combustion Diagnostics Basics of Pressure Measurements Preface The Piezoelectric Measurement Chain Assembly Variants Selection of the Measurement Location Adjusting the Pressure Level: Zero Level Correction (Pegging) Methods That Measure Absolute Pressure vii

2 viii Contents Angle and Trigger Marking TDC Assignment Pressure Indication in the Inlet and Outlet System Data Capture Pressure Trace Analysis and Loss Distribution Determination of the Heat Release Rate Loss Distribution Case Study: Comparison of Various Combustion Processes Optical Diagnostic Techniques Introduction Optical Methods: An Overview Application Examples of Optical Methods Diesel Engines SI Engines Optical Diagnostics Laser Based Measurement Techniques Optical Combustion Diagnostics: Status and Forecast References Engine Combustion Fuels Gasoline and SI Engine Fuels Diesel Fuels Alternative Fuels Diesel Engines Injection Methods and Systems Mixture Formation Autoignition and the Combustion Sequence Spark Ignition Engines Differences Between Premixed Flame and Diffusion Combustion Ignition Flame Front Propagation After Ignition, the Effect of Turbulence Information About Combustion Speed from the Heat Release Rate Irregular Combustion Combustion Process, Mixture Formation, Modes of Operation References Reaction Kinetics Foundations Chemical Equilibrium

3 Contents ix Reaction Rate Partial Equilibrium and Quasi-Steady-State Reaction Kinetics of Hydrocarbons Oxidation of Hydrocarbons Ignition Processes Reaction Kinetics in Engine Simulation References Pollutant Formation Exhaust Gas Composition Carbon Monoxide Unburned Hydrocarbons Sources of HC Emissions Non-limited Pollutant Components Particle Emission in the Diesel Engine Introduction Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Soot Formation Particle Emission Modeling Nitrogen Oxides Thermal NO Prompt NO NO Formed via N 2 O Fuel Nitrogen Reactions Forming NO References Part II Simulation of the Overall Process 7 Calculation of the Real Working Process Single-Zone Cylinder Model Fundamentals Mechanical Work Determination of the Mass Flow Through the Valves/Valve Lift Curves Heat Transfer in the Cylinder Heat Transfer in the Exhaust Manifold Wall Temperature Models The Heat Release Rate Knocking Combustion Internal Energy The Two-Zone Cylinder Model Modeling the High Pressure Range According to Hohlbaum

4 x Contents Modeling the High Pressure Phase According to Heider Results of NO x Calculation with Two-Zone Models Modeling the Gas Exchange for a Two-Stroke Engine Modeling the Gas Path Modeling Peripheral Components Model Building Integration Methods Gas Dynamics Basic Equations of One-Dimensional Gas Dynamics Numerical Solution Methods Boundary Conditions Fuel System Simulation Modeling the Basic Components Application Example References Charging of Internal Combustion Engines Charging Methods Pressure-Wave Charging Mechanical Supercharging Turbocharging Simulation of Charging Turbo Compressor The Positive Displacement Charger The Flow Turbine Turbochargers Charge Air Cooling References Exhaust Aftertreatment Modeling and Simulation Catalytic Converters Basis Equations Types of Catalytic Converters Diesel Particulate Filter Basic Equations Soot Loading and Pressure Loss Regeneration and Temperature Distribution Dosing Units System Simulation References

5 Contents xi Part III Simulation of Combustion and Charging 10 Total System Analysis General Introduction Thermal Engine Behavior Basics Coolant System The Oil System Engine Friction Friction Method for the Warm Engine Friction Method for the Warm-up Stationary Simulation Results (Parameter Variations) Load Variation in the Throttled SI Engine Influence of Ignition and Combustion Duration Variation of the Compression Ratio, Load, and Peak Pressure in Large Diesel Engine Investigations of Fully Variable Valve Trains Variation of the Intake Pipe Length and the Valve Durations (SI Engine, Full Load) Exhaust Gas Recirculation in the Turbocharged Passenger Car Diesel Engine Transient Simulation Results Acceleration of a Commercial Vehicle from 0 to 80 km/h Turbocharger Intervention Possibilities Part Load in the ECE Test Cycle The Warm-up Phase in the ECE Test Cycle Full Load Acceleration in the Turbocharged SI Engine References Phenomenological Combustion Models Introduction Diesel Engine Combustion Zero-Dimensional Heat Release Function Stationary Gas Jet Packet Models Time Scale Models SI Engine Combustion Laminar and Turbulent Flame Front Speed Heat Release Ignition Knocking References

6 xii Contents 12 Three-Dimensional Flow Fields Basic Fluid Mechanical Equations Mass and Momentum Transport Transport of Internal Energy and Species Passive Scalars and the Mixture Fraction Conservative Formulation of the Transport Equations Turbulence and Turbulence Models The Phenomenology of Turbulence Modeling Turbulence The Turbulent Law of the Wall Modeling the Turbulent Mixture State The Validity of Turbulence Models: Alternative Approaches Numerics The Finite Volume Method Discretization of the Diffusion Term: Central Differences Discretization of the Convection Term: The Upwind Scheme Discretization of the Time Derivation: Implicit Scheme Discretization of the Source Term The Operator Split Method Discretization and Numerical Solution of the Momentum Equation Computational Meshes Examples Simulation of Flow Structures in the Cylinder: The SI Engine Simulation of Flow Structures in the Cylinder: Diesel Engines Internal Nozzle Flow References Simulation of Injection Processes Single-Droplet Processes Momentum Exchange Mass and Heat Exchange (Single-Component Model) Mass and Heat Exchange in Multicomponent Modeling Flashboiling Spray Statistics The Boltzmann Williams Equation

7 Contents xiii The Numerical Solution of the Boltzmann Williams Equation; the Standard Model (Lagrange Formulation) Excursus: The Numerical Determination of Random Numbers Parcel Start Conditions at the Nozzle Exit Modeling Breakup Processes Modeling Collision Processes Modeling Turbulent Dispersion in the Standard Model Describing Turbulent Dispersion with the Fokker Planck Equation Representing Diffusion with the Fokker Planck Equation Problems in the Standard Spray Model Application Example: Direct Gasoline Injection for Stratified Charge with Centrally Arranged Piezo-Actuated Outward-Opening Injector Euler Spray Models: Formulation of Spray Dynamics with Observable Averages Locally Homogeneous Flow The Embedding of 1D-Euler Methods and Other Approaches The 3D Euler Method References Simulation of Combustion Excursus: Combustion Regimes General Procedure Diesel Combustion Simulation of Heat Release Ignition NO x Formation Soot Formation HC and CO Emissions The Homogeneous SI Engine (Premixed Combustion) The Two-Phase Problem The Magnussen Model Flame Surface Density Model The G-Equation The Diffusive G-Equation Ignition Knocking Pollutant Formation The SI Engine with Stratified Charge (Partially Premixed Flames)

8 xiv Contents 14.6 Fluid-Mechanical Simulation of Charge Exchange, Mixture Formation and Combustion: Future Prospects Mesh Movement Numerics Turbulence Modeling Injection Processes Modeling Combustion References D Supercharging Simulations Introduction Foundations of the 3D Simulation of Turbo-Machines The Treatment of Different and Various Moving Coordinate Systems Grid Generation for Turbo-Machines The Creation of Calculation Models and Boundary Conditions Postprocessing: Analysis and Visualization of Results Examples of Application Analysis of Compressor Behavior Examination of Turbine Variants Appendix Index

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