Introduction to Particulate Emissions 1. Gasoline Engine Particulate Emissions Introduction 3. References 7 About the Authors 8

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1 contents SECTION 1 Introduction to Particulate Emissions 1 CHAPTER 1 Gasoline Engine Particulate Emissions Introduction 3 References 7 About the Authors 8 CHAPTER 2 Health Impact of Particulates from Gasoline Engines Air Pollution: A Brief Historical Survey Interactions of Inhaled Air Pollutants with the Respiratory System The Journey of an Inhaled Particle: Macro- and Microscopic Structure of the Respiratory System Clearance Mechanisms Mechanisms Underlying the Adverse Health Effects Hazard and Risk Identification of Gasoline Exhaust Epidemiological Findings Findings from In Vivo Studies Findings from Ex Vivo and In Vitro Studies Conclusions and Future Recommendations 22 Acknowledgments 23 Glossary 23 References 24 About the Authors 31 v

2 vi CHAPTER 3 Regulations and Environmental Technologies Why the Emphasis on Particulates from Modern Gasoline Engines? Health Risks Global Warming Considerations Secondary Organic Aerosols (SOA) Regulations on Vehicular Exhaust Particulate Emissions United States and California Europe Test Procedures China India Technology Pathways In-Cylinder Methods Fuel Considerations Aftertreatment System Summary 51 References 51 About the Author 60 SECTION 2 Fundamentals of Particulate Emissions 61 CHAPTER 4 Soot Formation in Combustion Combustion-Generated Particles Organic Fraction Sulfate Fraction Nitrate Fraction Carbonaceous Fraction Ash Fraction 65

3 vii 4.2 Soot Formation Influencing Factors on Soot Formation in Gasoline Engines Inhomogeneity Tip Sooting Soot Formation in Different Operating Points Higher Specific Loads and Low Engine Speeds Engine in Transient Operation Points 74 References 77 About the Authors 81 CHAPTER 5 Fuel Impact on Particle Formation 83 References 93 About the Author 100 SECTION 3 Particulate Emission Reduction Technologies 101 CHAPTER 6 Advanced Gasoline Combustion and Engine Controls Gasoline Direct Injection PN Formation Mechanisms Operating Conditions Engine Calibration Summary Formation Mechanism 111 References 112 About the Authors 113

4 viii CHAPTER 7 Gasoline Particulate Filter Design, Fundamentals, and Function Introduction Aftertreatment Architectures Using GPF General Filter Design and Application Requirements Filter Design Fundamentals and Considerations Material Selection Filtration Pressure Drop Catalyst Functionality Mechanical Robustness and Packaging Application Fundamentals Filtration over Different Emission Cycles Ash Accumulation Filter Design Based on Pressure Drop Soot Oxidation and Regeneration Summary 140 References 140 About the Author 144 CHAPTER 8 Gasoline Particulate Filter Application and Durability Introduction Filtration Efficiency in Practical Applications Procedures for Particulate Emission Measurement Effect of Application Conditions on Filtration Efficiency Evolution of Filtration Efficiency over Initial Mileage Evolution of Filtration Efficiency over Extended Mileage 152

5 ix 8.3 Ash Accumulation in Vehicle Applications Soot Management in Vehicle Applications Soot Load Monitoring Examples of GPFs Operated in Purely Passive Applications Examples of Severe Soot Regeneration Thermal Robustness Requirements in Vehicle Applications Thermal Stress Due to Transient Changes in the Boundary Conditions Thermal Stress Due to Severe Soot Oxidation Summary and Conclusions 173 References 174 About the Authors 176 CHAPTER 9 Three-Way Catalyst Integration into Particulate Filters Introduction 177 References 189 About the Authors 190 CHAPTER 10 Three-Way Catalyst Gaseous Emissions: Gasoline Particulate Filter vs. Flow-Through Substrates Introduction Typical System Architectures Design of Filter Coating and Effect on Gaseous Conversion 193

6 x 10.4 Examples of the Gaseous Emissions Conversion Performance of Coated GPFs Summary 200 Reference 201 About the Authors 202 CHAPTER 11 Uncoated Gasoline Particulate Filter Integration and Examples 203 Summary Introduction GPF Design/Integration Functional Requirements GPF System Operation Associated Test Procedures Tuning Impact of the GPF Engine Performance GPF Monitoring Strategies GPF System Validation Filtration Efficiency Tests Vehicle Road Tests Conclusion 220 About the Author 221 CHAPTER 12 System Integration and Application for a Three-Way Catalyst-Coated Gasoline Particulate Filter Design of TWC-Coated GPF PN FE Optimization of PN FE 225

7 xi 12.2 Soot Regeneration Soot Regeneration with Respect to Oxygen Concentration Soot Mass Limit Soot Regeneration Rate Durability Test PN FE Ash Effect on SML Implementation of GPF in Mass Production Vehicles 233 References 233 About the Authors 234 SECTION 4 Measurement, Modeling and Control 235 CHAPTER 13 Measurement of Gasoline Particle Emissions: Laboratory and On-Board Vehicle Background to the Development of Particle Number (PN) Counting CPC Design PN Counting System Design Performance Criteria for Particle Counting Systems Periodic Calibration and Validation PN Limit Specified for EURO 5 Compression Ignition Vehicles Other Legislative Applications of PN Limits PN Counting Systems for Real Driving Emissions Example: A PEMS-PN System Based on a CPC (HORIBA OBS-ONE-PN) Example: A PEMS-PN System Based on an Advanced Diffusion Charger Design (TESTO NANOMET-3) 245

8 xii Application of PEMS-PN to Other Automotive Exhaust Applications Future of PN Measurement Within the EU Future Applications of PN Counting for Non-exhaust Emissions 247 Acknowledgments 247 References 248 About the Author 249 CHAPTER 14 On-Board Diagnostics for Gasoline Particulate Filters Introduction Regulation Overview GPF Failure Modes Missing GPF Substrate GPF Cracking and Channel Damage GPF Sensing DPS Resistive PM Sensor Ion Charge Sensor Escaping Current PM Sensor Radio Frequency Sensor Algorithm Development Flow Restriction Differential Pressure Signal Fault Criteria System Identification Monitor Enable Conditions, Calculations, and Thresholds Algorithm Validation Validation Strategies Regulatory Requirements 266 References 266 About the Authors 267

9 xiii CHAPTER 15 Modeling of Gasoline Particulate Emission Control Systems and Components Introduction Wall-Scale Modeling Wall Filtration Effect of Accumulated Soot on Filtration Pressure Drop Channel-Scale Modeling Mass-Momentum Balance Pressure Drop Energy Balance Species Balance TWC Reactions Soot Reactions Filter Scale Modeling Filter Regeneration in Fuel Cut-Off Events Ash Accumulation Conclusions 307 Acknowledgments 308 Nomenclature 308 A. Latin Letters 308 B. Greek Letters 310 C. Subscripts and Superscripts 310 D. Acronyms 310 Reference 310 About the Authors 314 SAE Book Category Descriptions 317 Index 319

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