Engines. ii. Explain the operation of spark ignition and compression ignition for internal combustion engines used aboard small vessels.

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Barry Parks
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1 Quartermaster 13b. i. Explain the principal features of steam turbine, turboelectric, direct reversing diesel, dieselelectric, gas turbine, nuclear, gasoline, and diesel engines and the relative advantages of each type. ii. Explain the operation of spark ignition and compression ignition for internal combustion engines used aboard small vessels. iii. Demonstrate your familiarity with the engine aboard the vessel used by your ship, including its principles of operation, fuel, lubrication, cooling and electrical systems, and their component parts. iiii. Demonstrate your ability to locate and correct minor engine troubles according to the engine manufacturer s troubleshooting guide. Engines The vast majority of boaters today operate craft that are powered by either outboard or inboard marine internal combustion engines. Since outboard engines account for about 70 percent of total engine production, let s consider them first. Outboard This is a basic, internal combustion engine consisting of an aluminum alloy block containing a crankshaft with a flywheel on top that is rotated by a rope or an electric starter. The crankshaft is rotated by pistons that move up and down within cylinders. They are driven by the expanding force of a mixture of fuel (gasoline) and air, ignited by an electric spark from spark plugs that protrude into the cylinders through the cylinder head. These spark plugs get current from a magnet. As the crankshaft is forced to rotate by the driving action of pistons, this rotation is transmitted through a drive shaft, vertically mounted, through bevel gears to a short, horizontal propeller shaft on which the propeller is mounted. The basic engine is a two-cycle engine normally using gasoline mixed with oil. The oil lubricates the internal working parts and surfaces. The oil and gas enter a carburetor, where air is mixed with the fuel. This mixture enters the crankcase through an intake valve and on into a combustion chamber. The fuel ignites at the maximum compression caused by the rising piston, and the explosion forces the piston down. Each piston goes through a cycle of two strokes. The down or power stroke rotates the drive shaft and exposes the exhaust and intake ports in the wall of the cylinder. Exhaust gases escape on one side and fresh fuel enters on the other. The upstroke covers these ports and compresses the fuel for ignition. Exhaust valves are not required. Outboard Basic Engine, Two Cycle 1. Manual starter handle 2. Manual starter pulley 3. Flywheel 4. Upper Cover 5. Magneto assembly 6. Low-speed control 7. Carburetor silencer 8. Crankcase 9. Piston 10. Cylinder 11. Head jacket 12. Spark plugs 13. Carburetor 14. Steering handle and throttle control 15. Upper motor control Spark Plug Components 16. Water intake pipe to engine 17. Shift rod 18. Lower cover 19. Driveshaft 20. Stern mounting bracket 21. Exhaust gallery 22. Water outlet 23. Lower motor mount 24. Water pump 25. Exhaust outlet 26. Water intake 27. Driveshaft pinion gear 28. Propeller-shaft gears 29. Shift lever 30. Skeg 31. Propeller The source of the igniting spark is the magnet mounted within the flywheel, which requires no outside power. (Normally, batteries are used for starting, lights, etc., but not for ignition.)

The outboard motor is entirely self-contained, is secured by clamps, and should be protected by a safety chain to the stern of the boat or attached as an auxiliary by means of a bracket.

2 The motor is cooled by water picked up by a forward-facing scoop just behind the propeller. It is forced through passages around the motor by a pump and is expelled through an underwater outlet as are the exhaust fumes. The outboard motor is entirely self-contained, is secured by clamps, and should be protected by a safety chain to the stern of the boat or attached as an auxiliary by means of a bracket. Outboard motors may have two, four, or six cylinders. Their power output ranges from 3 horsepower to 100 horsepower, and although intended to be portable, these removable engines range in weight from 17 to 300 pounds. Small outboard engines (up to 18 horsepower) usually are hand-started and handcontrolled. Some have an integral fuel tank. Outboard motors generally have electric starters, equipped for remote starting, control, and steering, and have separate fuel tanks. Four-Cycle Inboard Engine (Gasoline, 4 Cylinders) 1. Piston 2. Cylinder 3. Valve 4. Rocker arm 5. Valve spring 6. Water jacket 7. Reverse gear 8. Timing gear 9. Flywheel 10. Crankcase 11. Crankshaft 12. Main bearings 13. Rod bearings 14. Camshaft 15. Valve cover 16. Valve push rods Four-Cycle Diesel Marine Engine 1. Rocker arms; valves, exhaust 2. Rocker arms; injectors 3. Push rods 4. Piston 5. Cylinder 6. Camshaft 7. Main bearings 8. Timing gear, camshaft 9. Timing gear, idler 10. Flywheel 11. Gearbox 12. Rod bearings 13. Crankcase 14. Cam followers 15. Air intake ports 16. Accessory pulley wheel 17. Water jacket Inboard The inboard engine (so called because it is located entirely inside the hull, mounted on stringers or a bed) is an internal combustion engine that develops its power by pistons driving a crankshaft. It includes a cast-iron block containing pistons, the crankshaft, and other moving parts. Attached to the block are various accessories for starting, ignition, cooling, lubricating, exhaust gas removal, fuel injection, etc. Fuel may be either gasoline (most common) or diesel fuel a less expensive fuel that is less likely to explode. Normally marine engines have two, three, four, six, or eight cylinders usually mounted in-line or, as in the V-6 and V-8 engines, in two parallel banks. The combustion principle is the same as discussed in outboard engines, except for diesel engines. Here, the fuel is ignited by the heat of air compression caused by the upstroke of the piston, thus eliminating the need for spark plugs or an ignition system. Most inboard engines are of the four-strokecycle type, commonly called four-cycle, requiring two valves for each cylinder intake and exhaust to admit fuel and dispose of burned gases. These valves are activated by a camshaft, which is geared to the crankshaft.

3 In the complete cycle, four strokes of the piston are involved. The crankshaft makes one revolution on each two strokes. Two crankshaft revolutions equal one cycle of four piston strokes: intake, compression, power, and exhaust. FOUR-STROKE CYCLE, GASOLINE ENGINE Power is related from the crankshaft to the drive shaft through the transmission in order to enable neutral, forward, or reverse drive. In addition, some engines are equipped with a reduction gear to reduce the crankshaft speed to a lower speed on the drive shaft in order to enable both the engine and the propeller to operate at their most efficient rates. The inboard-outboard motor combines an inboard engine connected through the transom with an outboard stern-drive unit. This gives the outboard engine s ease of maneuvering, along with the greater horsepower of an inboard engine more conveniently located aboard the boat. Other Types of Propulsion Although the internal combustion engine is by far the most widely used today, there are other types. DIAGRAM OF A RECIPROCATING STEAM ENGINE There are variations of the internal combustion model, such as the multifuel engine, which uses hydrocarbon fuel developed by the U.S. Army. This operates like a two-cycle diesel engine, requiring no valves and equipped with air cooling. STEAM LAP EXHAUST LAP PISTON STEAM EXHAUST VALVE STEAM INLET The N.S.U. Wankel rotary engine replaces cylinders and pistons with an eccentric-mounted rotor. A single spark plug ignites compressed fuel in a specially-shaped chamber containing the rotor, keeping it turning. The gas turbine engine consists of a gas producer where gasoline and air are vaporized under enormous pressure and a turbine converts the burning expanding gas into rotating shaft power. Steam Expansion Engines The source of steam power is the coal or oil-fired furnace, which heats water in a boiler to produce steam under pressure. This high-pressure steam is conducted through pipes to the cylinders of a reciprocating piston engine, where steam expansion provides the driving force that activates the pistons. A sliding valve alternates steam CROSSHEAD GUIDE ECCENTRIC ARM PISTON ROD CROSSHEAD ECCENTRIC CIRCLE CONNECTING ROD LINE ECCENTRIC ROD CRANK CIRCLE CRANK ARM VALVE STEAM ECCENTRIC CIRCLE VALVE IN MID-POSITION

4 to the top and bottom surfaces of the piston, providing up and down strokes in sequence. Piston action rotates the engine s crankshaft. In a double-expansion engine, the cylinders are mounted in pairs. A small-diameter pair operates first and then feeds steam into the larger one under less pressure. The steam provides the driving force by continuing expansion before being drawn off into a condenser that converts it back to water. The water is returned to the boiler through a preheating system. Triple- and quadruple-expansion engines are an extension of connected cylinders with each of the companion cylinders increasing in size according to a precise ratio. FOUR-CYLINDER, TRIPLE-EXPANSION STEAM ENGINE Turboelectric Drive This propulsion system is based on a steam-driven turbine wherein steam under pressure is the force that strikes the turbine blades, causing them to rotate. The blades are small at the front of the turbine and become larger toward the rear to utilize decreasing steam pressure as it moves through the turbine. This rotation is connected by a shaft to an AC or DC generator or alternator, which in turn provides power for the main, electric-propulsion engine. Diesel-Electric Drive The basic power unit is a diesel-fueled engine that provides the driving action for an electric generator or alternator, which in turn provides electric power for an AC or DC electricpropulsion motor that provides the propeller shaft driving power directly or through a system of gears. To reverse a turboelectric or diesel-electric drive, if the electric motor is operated on DC, polarity is reversed. If the motor is operating on AC, two of its three phases are reversed. Direct Reversing Diesel In this installation, a standard, heavy-duty, diesel-fueled, internal combustion engine is the basic power unit. In the reversing process, the engine is completely stopped and a camshaft device is activated, which, when the engine is restarted, causes the crankshaft to operate in reverse. In other words, the engine itself reverses its rotation, as, of course, does the drive shaft and propeller.

5 To achieve a neutral position, a clutch action separates the drive shaft, permitting the engine to continue to operate. This is a fairly standard installation on harbor tugs, river towboats, commercial, and military auxiliary vessels. Nuclear Power To date, the application of relatively small, nuclear-power reactors for ship propulsion has been developed chiefly for submarines, aircraft carriers, and other naval vessels. Only one commercial ship, the freight-passenger vessel Savannah, was equipped with nuclear power. Its keel was laid in 1958 and the vessel was retired in The Savannah was used mostly as a goodwill promotional vessel, demonstrating a peaceful use of nuclear power. The ship actually transported cargo between 1965 and Without going into the complex fission process, whereby the splitting of atoms releases fantastic amounts of energy (heat), we will simply consider its application. The power reactor consists of a heavily-shielded container (cement/lead-insulated to protect personnel from radiation) containing heavy water as a moderator. It utilizes enriched uranium or plutonium. The reactor also contains the fuel, which is an enriched solution of uranium salt. The moderator and fuel are intimately mixed. Heat generated by the resulting fission process goes into a water-filled heat exchanger, where it is converted to steam. The steam thus produced is piped into a steam turbine that rotates the drive shaft. The steam residue goes into a condenser and returns as water to the heat exchanger. In this case, uranium is substituted for conventional fuel as the energy source. From 2.2 pounds of uranium comes a power output equal to five million pounds of coal (2,500 tons). Hopefully, this type of power source for ship propulsion will increase in the years ahead. Engine Operation The proper function, dependability, and long life of any power plant depends to a large degree on the care and maintenance it gets. Safety is the first consideration. Proper safety practices include having the tanks vented overboard; being sure there are no fuel fumes in the bilge; equipping the engine with a drip pan and the carburetors with a flame arrestor; spark-proofing the electric switches; and checking for tight fuel tanks and lines, adequate engine compartment ventilation, and tight electrical connections. Your pre-starting check should include careful attention to the following: No fumes in engine compartment Oil level in crankcase at proper level (add proper grade oil, if necessary) Water level in battery (plates should be covered) Grease cups on water pump, transmission, etc., filled and tightened down Distributor wiring and spark plugs free of dirt, corrosion, and moisture All wiring with good connections Water intake open Fuel valves open Lines tight and clean Reverse gear operates freely No stuffing box leak Ventilation exhaust blower running a full five minutes before starting

While in operation, the engine should be periodically checked to be sure the oil pressure and engine temperature are normal, the electric-charging rate is proper, the fuel supply is adequate, and the

6 While in operation, the engine should be periodically checked to be sure the oil pressure and engine temperature are normal, the electric-charging rate is proper, the fuel supply is adequate, and the engine is running smoothly. Before securing the engine, slow down its operating speed to allow it to cool. Turn off the fuel valves and run all fuel out of the lines. Shut off the ignition. Recheck the engine compartment for fuel or water leaks. Consult manufacturers specifications for engines that may not require that fuel lines be drained. All engines come with an operation manual provided by the manufacturer. If you don t have one, contact the manufacturer for another copy. It includes all specifications, operating instructions, and maintenance and repair data for the engine and its accessories. Familiarize yourself with this manual and develop a checklist for prestarting, operating, winter care, lay up, and outfitting. Always keep an engine log that records the hours of operation, oil changes, repairs and adjustments made, most efficient revolutions per minute (rpms), the best operating temperature and charging rate, etc. Obviously, it makes good sense to carry a tool kit as recommended by the manufacturer. Similarly, an adequate supply of spare parts should be aboard. Electrical Systems For the most part, electrical systems on small boats are entirely self-contained. Even on the smallest powerboats and auxiliaries, electricity is needed for engine operation, running lights, etc. Battery Components Are Shown in Standard 3-Cell, 6-Volt Type The source of electrical power is usually the wet cell or lead-acid battery, which is made up of a series of cells in a plastic or hard-rubber container, electricallyconnected in series. Each cell is made up of a number of positive (lead sulfate) and negative (spongy lead) plates separated by glass, wood, or rubber inserts. Three such cells make up a 6 V battery and six cells make up a 12 V battery. They are submerged in a sulfuric acid solution. The resulting chemical reaction produces electrical energy released through positive and negative terminals to which the engine and other circuits are attached by wires. Battery care calls for careful maintenance of the electrolyte (liquid level) in the battery by the addition of distilled water as necessary. The battery s ability to deliver electrical energy should be checked periodically with a hydrometer, which measures the specific gravity of the electrolyte. The battery and, particularly, its terminals should be kept clean and free from corrosion with a solution of sodium bicarbonate, and coated with Vaseline. Maintaining a battery at or near

7 Inboard Ignition System full charge (normally a reading between and on the hydrometer) will protect it from freezing, and prolong its life. Batteries in boats should be firmly-secured and provided with a ventilated plastic cover. On many boats, a dual battery system is used, with one battery used for cabin lights, radios, etc., and the other reserved for engine starting, ignition, and equipment that is used only when the engine is in operation, such as running lights, etc. To understand the wiring of your boat and galvanic action, you will need an expert. Care of Outboard Motors Outboard motors for boats have been around for a good many years, but they are still temperamental and must be handled with tender loving care. Most of them are of two-cycle stroke, but a few are four-cycle. It is the twocycle that requires the most care and is the more popular. Such engines in the lower horsepower ranges may be either air- or water-cooled. They are very expensive and easily damaged. Owners of such engines are reluctant to loan them out for fear of damage. Never violate any of the following rules. Never run an outboard engine in salt water without flushing it in fresh water immediately after. Never connect a starting battery, if required, to the wrong polarity of the electrical system. One spark and you will have a very expensive repair bill. Never start an outboard unless the safety chain is secured to the transom. Make sure your tanks are full of the proper oil-gas mixture (Oil-Gas Mixtures chart) before casting off. As soon as the engine is started, ascertain that enough cooling water is being discharged for water-cooled engines. If no discharge is seen, shut the engine down immediately. Investigate. Never leave an engine with gas in the carburetor for more than 24 hours. If you do not need it sooner, disconnect the fuel line at the motor while it is running and let it run dry. You may want to consult the manufacturer s specifications. Periodically, check the lower transmission oil level and replenish it. Use oil as specified for two-cycle engines; others create excess carbon. Store engines in a vertical position to keep water pumps drained. Have a spare starter rope, spark plug, propeller shear pin, and cotter key, and the minimum tools for such repairs on board at all times. Accidents can happen to outboard motors. If you are cruising along and come to a sudden stop by hitting a submerged object or sandbar, your outboard engine may be pooped, or swamped by your own backwash. In such cases, you may be able to start it again. Remove the hood and use a dry towel to wipe clean all electrical systems. You may have to remove the plugs and also dry them, depending on how long the engine ran submerged. Since the carburetor is under pressure, very little water should be in it. A few squeezes on the fuel priming bulb will take care of that. On the other hand, if your engine falls overboard, for whatever reason, and can be salvaged within a few hours, it can be disassembled and restored with no great trouble by a reliable marine motor shop. Even saltwater-immersed engines may have such damage alleviated by emptying the cylinders of water and refilling them with light oil until you can get the engine back to a shop.

8 A little practice in changing shear pins from inside a boat will reward you later if you operate often in obstructed waterways. Oil-Gas Mixtures 50-to-1 Mixture Gasoline Oil U.S. Measure 1 gallon 1 / 6 pint or 3 oz 3 gallons 1 / 2 pint or 9 oz. 5 gallons 13 / 16 pint or 15 oz. 6 gallons 1 pint or 16 oz. Metric Measure 1 liter 0.02 liter or 20 cc 5 liters 0.10 liter or 100 cc 10 liters 0.20 liter or 200 cc 20 liters 0.40 liter or 400 cc

Internal Combustion Engines

Internal Combustion Engines The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the burning of a fuel occurs in a confined space called a combustion chamber. This exothermic reaction of a fuel with an