Making Sense of Aircraft Endurance, Range, and Economy It isn t as simple as the textbook says it is!
|
|
- Tamsyn Manning
- 5 years ago
- Views:
Transcription
1 Making Sense of Aircraft Endurance, Range, and Economy It isn t as simple as the textbook says it is! Photo: First aerial refueling, two DH- 4B aircraft, 27 June 1923, USAF Photo Most professional pilots earn their instrument- rating sitting behind one or more propellers, after having learned textbook definitions of maximum endurance and range speeds. We learn early on that maximum endurance speed uses less gas in a holding pattern and that gives us more time to wait for the weather, to sort out malfunctions, or to just make things right for an eventual landing. We also know that maximum range not only gives our craft its longest legs, but also gets us to our destination with the most fuel remaining. In each case, the correct answer to the question how fast? can give us needed flexibility. But how many of us realize that some of the rules changed when we graduated to jet engines? Or that in some cases the textbooks are just wrong? Maximum endurance speed carries more risk for a jet than a propeller- driven aircraft; the distinction can be lost on a novice jet pilot. While both aircraft types determine maximum range in the same way, adjustments for weight and altitude changes are different. In other ways the distinctions are disappearing. A turbofan engine gets most of its propulsive force from the fan, not the jet. A turboprop can get 15 percent or more of its forward force from the engine, not the prop. No matter what type of engine an airplane has, there are other factors that can completely outweigh engine economy. If you fly a turbofan or a turboprop and want to really maximize your fuel usage, you need to understand maximum endurance and range procedures for both.
2 Minimum Drag = Minimum Fuel Usage = Maximum Endurance A jet engine produces thrust by accelerating air and fuel aft. The fuel and air is the m (mass) of Sir Isaac Newton s first law of motion, F=ma. The a is the acceleration, and the resulting F is the force. Newton s third law tells us that for every action force (air and fuel going aft) there is an equal an opposite reaction force (aircraft going forward). An aeronautical engineer can diagram the thrust versus the velocity to look at the relationship of one to the other. In steady, unaccelerated flight, drag is equal to thrust so we can hypothesize the composition of induced and parasite drag. A jet aircraft requires high angles of attack at low speed and that spikes the induced drag. At high speeds the entire airplane becomes a speed brake, causing parasite drag to climb prohibitively. The result is the familiar u shape of the curve. Maximum endurance occurs where the total drag is at a minimum, and this point is also where the ratio of lift- to- drag is at its highest, the point of (L/D)MAX. A reciprocating engine connected to a propeller does not produce any thrust at all. If you disconnect the propeller, there will be no forward force. The engine imparts shaft horsepower to the propeller that develops an aerodynamic force that generates forward thrust. A turboprop may develop a small amount of thrust, but for the most part it too generates power imparted to the propeller. Unlike the turbojet, the propeller- driven airplane does not require large amounts of power to fly slowly and the minimum drag point is found at a point slower than (L/D)MAX. The shapes of these two curves are critically important. The propeller- driven aircraft s flatter curve means pilots can move from a little slow to a little fast with relative ease. Adding power makes you faster, subtracting power makes you slower. That is not always the case with the turbojet, where the minimum drag / minimum thrust required point
3 sharply divides two aircraft behaviors. When in the zone faster than the minimum thrust required point the thrust levers operate conventionally. If the pilot wants to fly faster, he or she simply adds thrust until at the desired speed, then reduces thrust to a point that is higher than the original thrust so as to maintain the newer speed. To fly slower, the pilot reduces thrust until the new speed is achieved, and then adds power to a point that is less than the original setting. This is fully expected. But when in the zone slower than the minimum thrust required point, things are not so straightforward. To fly slower, for example, reducing thrust will cause the speed to decrease. But to stabilize at the new, slower speed, more thrust is needed than the original setting. When attempting to accelerate, a large burst of thrust may suffice, but the only way to ensure an increase in speed is to sharply decrease the angle of attack. This region of reversed command is contrary to normal pilot reactions and is what many call, behind the power curve. Most aircraft manufacturers publish holding and endurance speeds that are well above the true maximum endurance speeds, as a safety factor. Turbojet pilots are well advised to treat even these published endurance speeds as absolute minimum speeds. Maximum V- to- F = Maximum Range A turbojet s thrust level is analogous to its fuel flow and a propeller- driven aircraft s power level is analogous to its fuel flow. The resulting charts offer a mathematical way to derive maximum range. Specific Range = distance fuel Algebra permits us to divide both sides by the same factor (time) without changing the result: Specific Range = distance/time fuel/time = V FF
4 We can then say that maximum range is obtained at (V/FF)MAX or (FF/V)MIN. That latter quantity can be found graphically by plotting the tangent to the curve and the intersection of the tangent and the curve determines where maximum range can be found. You can analyze the math or accept on faith that drawing a line from the origin to the curve will identify your maximum range speed. Why is this important? It will help you to understand how to set your power levers as you burn off fuel and why you should climb when you can. The Impact of Fuel Burn on Maximum Range Once you ve set your power levers to maintain maximum range speed your work is not done. As the aircraft burns fuel the weight decreases and the fuel flow required curves shift down and to the left. That means your speed is going to have to come back if you want to continue to make gas. This holds true for both aircraft types. When weight and ATC permit, your next step is to climb. The Impact of Altitude on Maximum Range Many pilot and aeronautical engineering texts are confused on the subject of climbing to achieve maximum range. Most acknowledge a jet engine performs best at higher RPMs and
5 that lower inlet temperatures reduce specific fuel consumption. But some claim all benefits end where the tropopause begins and fuel consumption may actually suffer at higher altitude. A propeller- driven aircraft, it is often said, is altitude ambivalent and does not need to climb to achieve maximum range. These claims ignore that high technology fuel control units and full authority digital engine (or electronics) control can extract performance gains at altitudes once thought impossible. A modern turbofan engine, moreover, can be said to be part propeller and a turboprop can be said to be part turbojet. Aircraft manufacturers should present accurate climb and cruise fuel numbers, pilots should refer to their manuals when venturing to beyond the limits of their textbooks. The Impact of Headwinds and Tailwinds on Maximum Range Many aeronautical engineering texts claim that flying slower with a tailwind and faster with a headwind will reduce overall fuel consumption, usually noting that the winds must be at least 25 percent of the true airspeed to yield benefits. The trigonometry of the chart seems to lend credence to this claim. Some manufacturers even give recommended speed adjustments. I ve run the numbers on a variety of aircraft, from the turboprop PC- 12 to the ultra- long range Gulfstream G650, and the results are the same. Making the recommended speed adjustments has a fifty- fifty chance of improving fuel burn, but only marginally. The adjustments will hurt fuel burn about as often, but again only marginally. My advice: don t bother adjusting your speed to account for a headwind or tailwind without doing the math first. One Final Myth: Flying Faster Means Less Flight Time and That Saves Money Consider a Gulfstream G450 cruising at 37,000 feet in a 100- knot headwind starting at 70,000 lbs. gross weight, and ISA conditions. The crew knows normal cruise speed will be M0.80 but are wondering if the owner will see an improved bottom line if they fly M0.03 slow, or even M0.03 faster. If you said, it depends, you are right. But it depends on more than just what the aeronautical engineer has to say; it depends on what the accountant is thinking. Are the pilots paid hourly or by salary? Are any of the maintenance programs billed by flight hour? Is the aircraft on a lease program, billed by flight time as opposed to calendar time? Each one of these variable costs may overwhelm the cost of fuel and make it financially advantageous to burn more fuel to reduce total flight time. You won t find the following equation in any aeronautical or pilot texts but it might provide you with the answer to the question, how fast do you want to fly?
6 where: Total Cost = D TAS WF FC FF FD + VA + VC + VE D Distance to cruise (since the climb and descent fuel will be about the same, we consider only the cruise portion) TAS True Air Speed during cruise WF Wind Factor (positive numbers for headwinds, negative for tailwinds) FF Fuel Flow (pounds per hour), average in cruise FC Fuel Cost ($ per gallon) FD Fuel Density (pounds per gallon) VA Variable Airframe costs ($ per hour) VC Variable Crew costs ($ per hour) VE Variable Engine costs ($ per hour) A salaried crewmember doesn t add to variable costs and does not lend to any incentive to fly faster. Some aircraft maintenance programs are fixed rate to a certain level of activity and then add per hour charges; while others count every hour from the first at an hourly rate. Variable costs can amount to $3,000 or more for a typical business jet. Fuel, on the other hand, will always be a factor. At $1.00 per gallon there are usually incentives to fly fast. But what about at $5.00 per gallon? Not so much! For the sake of our example, let s say it is an ISA day, the fuel costs $3.00 per gallon and has a density of 6.5 gallons per pound. The first hour fuel burn at M0.77 will be 2,996 lbs.; at M0.80 it will be 3,178 lbs.; and at M0.83 is will be 3,593 lbs. The speed up / slow down question depends entirely on those variable costs: Mach No Variable Costs $1,000 Variable Costs $3,000 Variable Costs M 0.77 $12,035 $20,828 $38,413 M 0.80 $12,278 $20,648 $37,389 M 0.83 $13,245 $21,233 $37,207 These numbers can be fine- tuned by adjusting fuel burn rates on an hourly basis but for demonstration purposes the conclusion in clear. In our example, it doesn t pay to fly faster until the variable costs overwhelm the cost of the increased fuel burn. As fuel costs go down, the incentive to increase speed go up. Similarly, as variable costs increase, speeding up becomes more attractive. The Answer to All Maximum Endurance and Range Questions Chances are you will not find the answers to all of your maximum endurance and range questions in a textbook because your aircraft is more advanced technologically than the textbook s author could have imagined. You are unlikely to get a complete answer from the airplane flight manual either because the accountants have just as much to say about costs
7 as do your computerized fuel control units. The correct answer depends on all of these variables and it is up to you, the pilot, to sort it all out. If you understand how turbojets and propeller- driven aircraft behave you will have a starting point when judging the performance of your turbofan or turboprop engines. You should also consider any variable costs in your operation. Only with these parts of the puzzle can you really have a well thought out answer to the question: how fast?
Performance means how fast will it go? How fast will it climb? How quickly it will take-off and land? How far it will go?
Performance Concepts Speaker: Randall L. Brookhiser Performance means how fast will it go? How fast will it climb? How quickly it will take-off and land? How far it will go? Let s start with the phase
More informationWeight Effects Part 1
Weight Effects Part 1 David F. Rogers Copyright c 1997-1999 David F. Rogers. All rights reserved. Most of us normally operate our aircraft at less than gross weight, yet weight significantly affects the
More informationHow to use the Multirotor Motor Performance Data Charts
How to use the Multirotor Motor Performance Data Charts Here at Innov8tive Designs, we spend a lot of time testing all of the motors that we sell, and collect a large amount of data with a variety of propellers.
More informationAIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOTS LICENSE ( FLIGHT PERFORMANCE AND PLANNING)
032 01 00 00 PERFORMANCE OF SINGLE-ENGINE AEROPLANES NOT CERTIFIELD UNDER JAR/FAR 25 (LIGHT AEROPLANES) PERFORMANCE CLASS B 032 01 01 00 Definitions of terms and speeds used Define the following terms
More informationThe Magic of Electric Flying or. Volts and Amps for Dummies By John Wheater
The Magic of Electric Flying or Volts and Amps for Dummies By John Wheater IT SEEMS there are many who are confused with what goes where and why and what motor and prop should be used on what battery and
More informationAERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING SHIBIN MOHAMED Asst. Professor Dept. of Mechanical Engineering Al Ameen Engineering College Al- Ameen Engg. College 1 Aerodynamics-Basics These fundamental basics first must be
More informationXIV.C. Flight Principles Engine Inoperative
XIV.C. Flight Principles Engine Inoperative References: FAA-H-8083-3; POH/AFM Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to single engine operation. Key Elements Elements Schedule
More informationWeight & Balance. Let s Wait & Balance. Chapter Sixteen. Page P1. Excessive Weight and Structural Damage. Center of Gravity
Page P1 Chapter Sixteen Weight & Balance Let s Wait & Balance Excessive Weight and Structural Damage 1. [P2/1/1] Airplanes are designed to be flown up to a specific maximum weight. A. landing B. gross
More informationWelcome to Aerospace Engineering
Welcome to Aerospace Engineering DESIGN-CENTERED INTRODUCTION TO AEROSPACE ENGINEERING Notes 5 Topics 1. Course Organization 2. Today's Dreams in Various Speed Ranges 3. Designing a Flight Vehicle: Route
More informationAnswer Key. Page 1 of 10
Name: Answer Key Score: [1] When range and economy of operation are the principal goals, the pilot must ensure that the airplane will be operated at the recommended A. equivalent airspeed. B. specific
More informationPart 1 Aerodynamic Theory COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL
Part 1 Aerodynamic Theory COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL 5 6 1 Preliminaries Before studying the chapters dealing with the aerodynamics of each phase of flight, it is essential to understand various definitions
More information3. What is the total fuel capacity with normal tanks? Usable? 4. What is the total fuel capacity with long range tanks? Usable?
Pilot Name: Last, first, mi. Date: (mo/dy/yr) Instructor: Pass/Fail: Instructors Initials: 1. What is the engine Manufacturer: Model: Type: 2. What is the horsepower rating? 3. What is the total fuel capacity
More informationAccident Prevention Program
Accident Prevention Program Part I ENGINE OPERATION FOR PILOTS by Teledyne Continental Motors SAFE ENGINE OPERATION INCLUDES: Proper Pre-Flight Use the correct amount and grade of aviation gasoline. Never
More informationReducing Landing Distance
Reducing Landing Distance I've been wondering about thrust reversers, how many kinds are there and which are the most effective? I am having a debate as to whether airplane engines reverse, or does something
More informationBAYLOR UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING. EGR 4347 Analysis and Design of Propulsion Systems Fall 2002 ASSIGNMENT GUIDELINES
BAYLOR UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING EGR 4347 Analysis and Design of Propulsion Systems Fall 2002 Design Project I Dr Van Treuren 100 points ASSIGNMENT GUIDELINES For this assignment, you may work
More informationFlight Test Evaluation of C-130H Aircraft Performance with NP2000 Propellers
Flight Test Evaluation of C-130H Aircraft Performance with NP2000 Propellers Lance Bays Lockheed Martin - C-130 Flight Sciences Telephone: (770) 494-8341 E-Mail: lance.bays@lmco.com Introduction Flight
More informationOptimizing Plane Performance by Finding the Right Prop 10/15/09
Optimizing Plane Performance by Finding the Right Prop 10/15/09 This is not an article for the meek or timid. Finding the right prop for your engine and airframe the engine is mounted on can be a daunting
More informationEverything You Need to Know About. Aerodynamics. By Julien Versailles
Everything You Need to Know About Aerodynamics By Julien Versailles The study of forces and the resulting motion of objects through the air or The study of the flow of air around and through an object
More informationMultirotor UAV propeller development using Mecaflux Heliciel
Multirotor UAV propeller development using Mecaflux Heliciel Sale rates of multirotor unmanned aerial vehicles, for both private and commercial uses, are growing very rapidly these days. Even though there
More informationPropeller Power Curve
Propeller Power Curve Computing the load of a propeller by James W. Hebert This article will examine three areas of boat propulsion. First, the propeller and its power requirements will be investigated.
More informationInitial / Recurrent Ground Take-Home Self-Test: The Beechcraft 58 Baron Systems, Components and Procedures
Initial / Recurrent Ground Take-Home Self-Test: The Beechcraft 58 Baron Systems, Components and Procedures Flight Express, Inc. This take-home self-test partially satisfies the recurrent ground training
More informationAIR TRACTOR, INC. OLNEY, TEXAS
TABLE OF CONTENTS LOG OF REVISIONS... 2 DESCRIPTION... 4 SECTION 1 LIMITATIONS... 5 SECTION 2 NORMAL PROCEDURES... 8 SECTION 3 EMERGENCY PROCEDURES... 8 SECTION 4 MANUFACTURER'S SECTION - PERFORMANCE...
More informationINVESTIGATION ONE: WHAT DOES A VOLTMETER DO? How Are Values of Circuit Variables Measured?
How Are Values of Circuit Variables Measured? INTRODUCTION People who use electric circuits for practical purposes often need to measure quantitative values of electric pressure difference and flow rate
More informationPrime Aircraft, LLC Aircraft Sales & Acquisitions
King Air Modifications Probably because the King Air is the most popular corporate turboprop every built and Beechcraft has manufactured over 6,000 units since 1964, many third party companies have come
More informationFLASHCARDS AIRCRAFT. Courtesy of the Air Safety Institute, a Division of the AOPA Foundation, and made possible by AOPA Services Corporation.
AIRCRAFT FLASHCARDS Courtesy of the Air Safety Institute, a Division of the AOPA Foundation, and made possible by AOPA Services Corporation. Knowing your aircraft well is essential to safe flying. These
More informationPA-28R 201 Piper Arrow
Beale Aero Club Aircraft Written Test PA-28R 201 Piper Arrow (Required passing score: 80%) 1. If an engine power loss occurs immediately after take off, the pilot s reaction should be to: a. maintain safe
More informationModule: Mathematical Reasoning
Module: Mathematical Reasoning Lesson Title: Speeding Along Objectives and Standards Students will: Determine whether a relationship is a function Calculate the value of a function through a real-world
More informationXIV.D. Maneuvering with One Engine Inoperative
References: FAA-H-8083-3; POH/AFM Objectives The student should develop knowledge of the elements related to single engine operation. Key Elements Elements Schedule Equipment IP s Actions SP s Actions
More informationIn order to discuss powerplants in any depth, it is essential to understand the concepts of POWER and TORQUE.
-Power and Torque - ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS: Torque is measured; Power is calculated In order to discuss powerplants in any depth, it is essential to understand the concepts of POWER and TORQUE. HOWEVER, in
More informationElectric VTOL Aircraft
Electric VTOL Aircraft Subscale Prototyping Overview Francesco Giannini fgiannini@aurora.aero 1 08 June 8 th, 2017 Contents Intro to Aurora Motivation & approach for the full-scale vehicle Technical challenges
More informationJet Aircraft Propulsion Prof. Bhaskar Roy Prof. A.M. Pradeep Department of Aerospace Engineering Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
Jet Aircraft Propulsion Prof. Bhaskar Roy Prof. A.M. Pradeep Department of Aerospace Engineering Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay Lecture No. # 04 Turbojet, Reheat Turbojet and Multi-Spool Engines
More informationBeechcraft Bonanza. 550 Tuned Induction Conversion. STC for Teledyne Continental IO-550-R for the Beechcraft Bonanza
Beechcraft Bonanza 550 Tuned Induction Conversion STC for Teledyne Continental for the Beechcraft Bonanza 1 (800) 334-2001 You Can Have More than a New Engine in Your Bonanza You Can Experience a New Aircraft
More informationAIRPLANE PERFORMANCES
1. Introduction AIRPLANE PERFORMANCES In function of their category of approach, aircraft are not sharing the same characteristics. The main points of difference will be found at: Maximum Operation Minimum
More informationAll Credit to Jeff Goin and Scout Paramotoring
TechDummy Understanding Paramotor Torque & Twist ad how to correct or minimize Mar 18, 2013 Section IV Theory & Understanding See other PPG Bible Additions See also Paramotor Torque Twist and Crash Torque
More informationThis Flight Planning Guide is published for the purpose of providing specific information for evaluating the performance of the Cessna Corvalis TT.
May 2010 TABLE OF CONTENTS This Flight Planning Guide is published for the purpose of providing specific information for evaluating the performance of the Cessna Corvalis TT. This guide is developed from
More informationElmendorf Aero Club Aircraft Test
DO NOT WRITE ON THIS TEST FEB 2013 Elmendorf Aero Club Aircraft Test Cessna - 182 For the following questions, you will need to refer to the Pilots Information Manual for the C-182R. The bonus questions
More informationAE Aircraft Performance and Flight Mechanics
AE 429 - Aircraft Performance and Flight Mechanics Propulsion Characteristics Types of Aircraft Propulsion Mechanics Reciprocating engine/propeller Turbojet Turbofan Turboprop Important Characteristics:
More informationFokker 50 - Limitations GENERAL LIMITATIONS MASS LIMITATIONS. Page 1. Minimum crew. Maximum number of passenger seats.
GENERAL LIMITATIONS Minimum crew Cockpit: Two pilots Maximum number of passenger seats Sixty-two (62) Maximum operating altitudes Maximum operating pressure altitude: Maximum take-off and landing pressure
More informationMini-Lab Gas Turbine Power System TM Sample Lab Experiment Manual
Mini-Lab Gas Turbine Power System TM Sample Lab Experiment Manual Lab Session #1: System Overview and Operation Purpose: To gain an understanding of the Mini-Lab TM Gas Turbine Power System as a whole
More informationChapter 4 Lecture 16. Engine characteristics 4. Topics. Chapter IV
Chapter 4 Lecture 16 Engine characteristics 4 Topics 4.3.3 Characteristics of a typical turboprop engine 4.3.4 Characteristics of a typical turbofan engine 4.3.5 Characteristics of a typical turbojet engines
More informationElmendorf Aero Club Aircraft Test
DO NOT WRITE ON THIS TEST FEB 2014 Elmendorf Aero Club Aircraft Test Cessna - 185 For the following questions, you will need to refer to the Pilots Information Manual for the C-185F and Graphic Engine
More informationElmendorf Aero Club Aircraft Test
DO NOT WRITE ON THIS TEST FEB 2013 Elmendorf Aero Club Aircraft Test Cessna - 172 For the following questions, you will need to refer to the Pilots Information Manual for the C-172R (180hp). The bonus
More informationFLY IN ATMOSPHERE BY DRAG FORCE EASY THRUST GENERATION - NEXT GENERATION TECHNOLOGY -
International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, Volume 4, Issue 7, July-2013 903 FLY IN ATMOSPHERE BY DRAG FORCE EASY THRUST GENERATION - NEXT GENERATION TECHNOLOGY - Mwizerwa Pierre Celestin
More informationGrey Box System Identification of Bus Mass
Grey Box System Identification of Bus Mass Darren Achtymichuk M. Sc. Student University of Alberta Department of Mechanical Engineering Project Background When analyzing vehicle dynamics, the mass of the
More informationChapter 4 Estimation of wing loading and thrust loading - 10 Lecture 18 Topics
Chapter 4 Estimation of wing loading and thrust loading - 10 Lecture 18 Topics 4.15.3 Characteristics of a typical turboprop engine 4.15.4 Characteristics of a typical turbofan engine 4.15.5 Characteristics
More informationPreface. Acknowledgments. List of Tables. Nomenclature: organizations. Nomenclature: acronyms. Nomenclature: main symbols. Nomenclature: Greek symbols
Contents Preface Acknowledgments List of Tables Nomenclature: organizations Nomenclature: acronyms Nomenclature: main symbols Nomenclature: Greek symbols Nomenclature: subscripts/superscripts Supplements
More informationAIRCRAFT INSPECTION REPORT. For CESSNA 172 RG
OSU, MAE 4223 Class Report 4 May 2001 AIRCRAFT INSPECTION REPORT For CESSNA 172 RG i This report documents the results of simulated FAA airworthiness flight testing conducted in accordance with Note and
More informationProp effects (Why we need right thrust) Torque reaction Spiraling Slipstream Asymmetric Loading of the Propeller (P-Factor) Gyroscopic Precession
Prop effects (Why we need right thrust) Torque reaction Spiraling Slipstream Asymmetric Loading of the Propeller (P-Factor) Gyroscopic Precession Propeller torque effect Influence of engine torque on aircraft
More informationChapter 7: DC Motors and Transmissions. 7.1: Basic Definitions and Concepts
Chapter 7: DC Motors and Transmissions Electric motors are one of the most common types of actuators found in robotics. Using them effectively will allow your robot to take action based on the direction
More informationFriction and Momentum
Lesson Three Aims By the end of this lesson you should be able to: understand friction as a force that opposes motion, and use this to explain why falling objects reach a terminal velocity know that the
More informationDiamond Star DA40 Pre-Solo Written Exam
Diamond Star DA40 Pre-Solo Written Exam Name Operating Limitations 1. What type of engine is in the DA40? 2. What is the maximum takeoff power produced? 3. What is the specified maximum continuous power?
More informationSimple Gears and Transmission
Simple Gears and Transmission Simple Gears and Transmission page: of 4 How can transmissions be designed so that they provide the force, speed and direction required and how efficient will the design be?
More informationDO NOT WRITE ON THIS TEST FEB 2013 Elmendorf Aero Club Aircraft Test. Cessna - 182
DO NOT WRITE ON THIS TEST FEB 2013 Elmendorf Aero Club Aircraft Test Cessna - 182 For the following questions, you will need to refer to the Pilots Information Manual for the C-182R. The bonus questions
More informationFourth Grade. Slide 1 / 146. Slide 2 / 146. Slide 3 / 146. Multiplication and Division Relationship. Table of Contents. Multiplication Review
Slide 1 / 146 Slide 2 / 146 Fourth Grade Multiplication and Division Relationship 2015-11-23 www.njctl.org Table of Contents Slide 3 / 146 Click on a topic to go to that section. Multiplication Review
More informationIt has taken a while to get
HOVERING15 99 15 BASICS HOVERING Hovering It has taken a while to get here, but this is what all the building and planning were for to see light under those skids. But this is also the time when you have
More informationEGLIN AERO CLUB C-172 OPEN BOOK EXAMINATION Apr Total usable fuel capacity for the aircraft with long range tanks is:
(The following questions are taken from the C-172N POH) 1. Total usable fuel capacity for the aircraft with long range tanks is: a. 54 gallons b. 50 gallons c. 62 gallons d. 40 gallons 2. Total fuel capacity
More information11.1 CURRENT ELECTRICITY. Electrochemical Cells (the energy source) pg Wet Cell. Dry Cell. Positive. Terminal. Negative.
Date: SNC1D: Electricity 11.1 CURRENT ELECTRICITY Define: CIRCUIT: path that electrons follow. CURRENT ELECTRICITY: continuous flow of electrons in a circuit LOAD: device that converts electrical energy
More informationElmendorf Aero Club Aircraft Test
DO NOT WRITE ON THIS TEST JAN 2014 Elmendorf Aero Club Aircraft Test SENECA II For the following questions, you will need to refer to the Pilots Information Manual for the PA-34-200T. USE ANSWER SHEET
More informationSIZING POWER SYSTEMS FOR ELECTRIC AIRPLANES
SIZING POWER SYSTEMS FOR ELECTRIC AIRPLANES POWER = WATTS I will be using the terms Volts, Amps and Watts throughout this discussion. Let me define them. Volts = the pressure at which the electric energy
More informationCHOOSING THE DESIGN OF YOUR AIRCRAFT
CHOOSING THE DESIGN OF YOUR AIRCRAFT By Chris Heintz [This article is part of a series, where aeronautical engineer Chris Heintz discusses light aircraft design and construction.] Having completed our
More informationFourth Grade. Multiplication Review. Slide 1 / 146 Slide 2 / 146. Slide 3 / 146. Slide 4 / 146. Slide 5 / 146. Slide 6 / 146
Slide 1 / 146 Slide 2 / 146 Fourth Grade Multiplication and Division Relationship 2015-11-23 www.njctl.org Multiplication Review Slide 3 / 146 Table of Contents Properties of Multiplication Factors Prime
More informationAeroplanes DAR ltd. Brief Flight Manual DAR Solo BRIEF FLIGHT MANUAL. DAR-Solo series. Sofia Page 1 of 25
BRIEF FLIGHT MANUAL DAR-Solo series Sofia 2015 Page 1 of 25 TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction 3 Limitations and Safety Information 4 General View of DAR-Solo series 6 Ignition 7 Engine warm up 8 Taxiing 9
More informationIn this lecture... Prof. Bhaskar Roy, Prof. A M Pradeep, Department of Aerospace, IIT Bombay
1 In this lecture... Intakes for powerplant Transport aircraft Military aircraft 2 Intakes Air intakes form the first component of all air breathing propulsion systems. The word Intake is normally used
More informationAIAA Foundation Undergraduate Team Aircraft Design Competition. RFP: Cruise Missile Carrier
AIAA Foundation Undergraduate Team Aircraft Design Competition RFP: Cruise Missile Carrier 1999/2000 AIAA FOUNDATION Undergraduate Team Aircraft Design Competition I. RULES 1. All groups of three to ten
More informationIsaac Newton vs. Red Light Cameras
2012 Isaac Newton vs. Red Light Cameras Approach Speed vs. Speed Limit Brian Cecvehicleelli redlightrobber.com 3/1/2012 Table of Contents Approach Speed vs. Speed Limit... 3 Definition of Speed Limit...
More informationINVESTIGATION OF ICING EFFECTS ON AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF AIRCRAFT AT TSAGI
INVESTIGATION OF ICING EFFECTS ON AERODYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF AIRCRAFT AT TSAGI Andreev G.T., Bogatyrev V.V. Central AeroHydrodynamic Institute (TsAGI) Abstract Investigation of icing effects on aerodynamic
More informationStopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance.
Q1. (a) A driver may have to make an emergency stop. Stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance. Give three different factors which affect the thinking distance or the braking distance. In
More informationJIM BEDE ADDS TWO HOMEBUILTS TO HIS LINE - THE BD-5J AND THE ALL NEW BD-6
Newest homebuilt from Jim Bede is the BD-6, a single-place version of the popular four-place BD-4. A BD-6 FOR $2000 JIM BEDE ADDS TWO HOMEBUILTS TO HIS LINE - THE BD-5J AND THE ALL NEW BD-6 By WALTER SHELBOURNE
More informationCESSNA P 337 H Pressurized Skymaster
CESSNA P 337 H Pressurized Skymaster N777SN Quick reference training guide This training manual cannot be used as a substitute for the official pilots operating handbook. Page 1 - 1. Take off (normal)
More informationSingle or Twin Motors?
Single or Twin otors? Are two really better than one? With all the variety you see in boats, both in size and application, it's not surprising that the question of how many motors are best is a common
More informationElectric Flight Potential and Limitations
Electric Flight Potential and Limitations Energy Efficient Aircraft Configurations, Technologies and Concepts of Operation, Sao José dos Campos, 19 21 November 2013 Dr. Martin Hepperle DLR Institute of
More informationFLIGHT TEST PROGRAM YOUR AIRPLANE HERE FLIGHT TEST PROGRAM YOUR AIRPLANE HERE
Flight #: 1 FIRST TEST FLIGHT Validate Engine Reliability Explore Flight Control Characteristics Do not use flaps Do not change throttle settings, mixture, or fuel tanks Remain above the airport Climb
More informationRFC Dallas, Inc. AIRCRAFT QUESTIONNAIRE (9/25/2016) "A Safe Pilot Knows His Equipment"
RFC Dallas, Inc. AIRCRAFT QUESTIONNAIRE (9/25/2016) "A Safe Pilot Knows His Equipment" NAME: Date: Aircraft: Cessna 182Q Registration Number: N631S Serial Number: The purpose of this questionnaire is to
More informationExploration 4: Rotorcraft Flight and Lift
Exploration 4: Rotorcraft Flight and Lift Students use appropriate terminology to describe the various stages of flight and discover that the lift force changes with the amount of air moved by the rotor
More informationAE 452 Aeronautical Engineering Design II Installed Engine Performance. Prof. Dr. Serkan Özgen Dept. Aerospace Engineering March 2016
AE 452 Aeronautical Engineering Design II Installed Engine Performance Prof. Dr. Serkan Özgen Dept. Aerospace Engineering March 2016 Propulsion 2 Propulsion F = ma = m V = ρv o S V V o ; thrust, P t =
More informationAircraft Propulsion And Gas Turbine Engines Semantic Scholar
Aircraft Propulsion And Gas Turbine Engines Semantic Scholar We have made it easy for you to find a PDF Ebooks without any digging. And by having access to our ebooks online or by storing it on your computer,
More informationBusy Ant Maths and the Scottish Curriculum for Excellence Foundation Level - Primary 1
Busy Ant Maths and the Scottish Curriculum for Excellence Foundation Level - Primary 1 Number, money and measure Estimation and rounding Number and number processes Fractions, decimal fractions and percentages
More informationFlight Testing of Your Europa Equipped with the Airmaster Propeller By Bud Yerly Custom Flight Creations, Inc.
Flight Testing of Your Europa Equipped with the Airmaster Propeller By Bud Yerly Custom Flight Creations, Inc. Once you've selected the desired blade and hub for your Airmaster constant speed propeller,
More informationAIRCRAFT FAMILIARIZATION. Some questions may not apply to the aircraft you are flying.
541-895-5935 Name Date AIRCRAFT FAMILIARIZATION Note: If this information is not provided in the aircraft s flight manual give it your best guess. Some questions may not apply to the aircraft you are flying.
More information550 T.I. ENGINE FOR THE BEECHCRAFT BONANZA STC FOR TELEDYNE CONTINENTAL IO-550-R FOR THE BEECHCRAFT BONANZA
550 T.I. ENGINE FOR THE BEECHCRAFT BONANZA STC FOR TELEDYNE CONTINENTAL IO-550-R FOR THE BEECHCRAFT BONANZA You Can Have More Than A New Engine In Your Bonanza You Can Experience A New Aircraft. Our company
More informationFlying Low and Slow. (and the Tools for its Calculation) Dieter Scholz. Hamburg University of Applied Sciences
AIRCRAFT DESIGN AND SYSTEMS GROUP (AERO) (and the Tools for its Calculation) Hamburg University of Applied Sciences 12th European Workshop on Aircraft Design Education (EWADE) 2015 (and the Tools for its
More informationPOWER. SAFETY. PERFORMANCE. ALL IN ONE PACKAGE.
POWER. SAFETY. PERFORMANCE. ALL IN ONE PACKAGE. Some missions require more from a helicopter. More speed. More power. More payload. More productivity. These missions require the MD 600N. This single-turbine
More informationChapter 4 Engine characteristics (Lectures 13 to 16)
Chapter 4 Engine characteristics (Lectures 13 to 16) Keywords: Engines for airplane applications; piston engine; propeller characteristics; turbo-prop, turbofan and turbojet engines; choice of engine for
More informationWelcome to the SEI presentation on the basics of electricity
Welcome to the SEI presentation on the basics of electricity 1 Electricity is a secondary energy source, meaning that it is produced from other, primary, energy sources. There are several primary sources
More informationROYAL CANADIAN AIR CADETS PROFICIENCY LEVEL FOUR INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE SECTION 2 EO M DESCRIBE PROPELLER SYSTEMS PREPARATION
ROYAL CANADIAN AIR CADETS PROFICIENCY LEVEL FOUR INSTRUCTIONAL GUIDE SECTION 2 EO M432.02 DESCRIBE PROPELLER SYSTEMS Total Time: 30 min PREPARATION PRE-LESSON INSTRUCTIONS Resources needed for the delivery
More informationElectricity and Magnetism
Electricity and Magnetism Electric Current and Electric Circuits What do you think? Read the statement below and decide whether you agree or disagree with it. Place an A in the Before column if you agree
More informationSafety Glides John Cochrane Draft 2/27/2012
Safety Glides John Cochrane Draft 2/27/2012 I don t get it, said the pilot as his crew was picking him out of the field. The glide computer said I could make it home with 200 feet to spare! This stupid
More informationGyroplane questions from Rotorcraft Commercial Bank (From Rotorcraft questions that obviously are either gyroplane or not helicopter)
Page-1 Gyroplane questions from Rotorcraft Commercial Bank (From Rotorcraft questions that obviously are either gyroplane or not helicopter) "X" in front of the answer indicates the likely correct answer.
More informationWhat You Need at the Flying Field
What You Need at the Flying Field The following items are considered necessary for the R/C pilot to have available in the field. Several of the items are needed right away and others might be needed at
More informationAppenidix E: Freewing MAE UAV analysis
Appenidix E: Freewing MAE UAV analysis The vehicle summary is presented in the form of plots and descriptive text. Two alternative mission altitudes were analyzed and both meet the desired mission duration.
More informationDUCHESS BE-76 AND COMMERCIAL MULTI ADD-ON ORAL REVIEW FOR CHECKRIDE
DUCHESS BE-76 AND COMMERCIAL MULTI ADD-ON ORAL REVIEW FOR CHECKRIDE The Critical Engine The critical engine is the engine whose failure would most adversely affect the airplane s performance or handling
More informationFlugzeugentwurf / Aircraft Design SS Part 35 points, 70 minutes, closed books. Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dieter Scholz, MSME. Date:
DEPARTMENT FAHRZEUGTECHNIK UND FLUGZEUGBAU Flugzeugentwurf / Aircraft Design SS 2015 Duration of examination: 180 minutes Last Name: Matrikelnummer: First Name: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dieter Scholz, MSME Date:
More informationTuning A Walbro Carb. Walbro Carb TUNE UP & Illustrated Guide
Tuning A Walbro Carb Walbro Carb TUNE UP & Illustrated Guide by M. B. Fuess Walbro carbs aren t too difficult to tune up if you know what you re doing. First of all, you need to know how the carb works
More informationSpeed Workshop. In this workshop we will be covering: a. Average speed b. Units c. Relative Speeds d. Distance/time graphs
Speed Workshop In this workshop we will be covering: a. Average speed b. Units c. Relative Speeds d. Distance/time graphs Average speed Speed is how quickly an object can cover a distance. You may also
More information550 T.I. ENGINE FOR THE CESSNA 210 STC FOR TELEDYNE CONTINENTAL IO-550-P FOR THE 210 & T210 (SERIAL NUMBERS THROUGH K, L, M & N)
550 T.I. ENGINE FOR THE CESSNA 210 STC FOR TELEDYNE CONTINENTAL IO-550-P FOR THE 210 & T210 (SERIAL NUMBERS 21059200 THROUGH 21064897 K, L, M & N) You Can Have More Than A New Engine In Your Cessna* You
More informationFelix Du Temple de la Croix Monoplane 1857
2 1 Felix Du Temple de la Croix Monoplane 1857 2 Thrust for Flight 3 Unpowered airplanes George Cayle s design (early 19 th century) Samuel P Langley s Airplane (late 19 th century) 4 Langley s Airplane
More informationUSAF Aero Club T-41B (Cessna R-172E) Aircraft Exam Updated February 2017
USAF Aero Club T-41B (Cessna R-172E) Aircraft Exam Updated February 2017 Instructions Complete the supplement following exam using the answer sheet provided. Do not assume information not specifically
More informationALIGNING A 2007 CADILLAC CTS-V
ALIGNING A 2007 CADILLAC CTS-V I ll describe a four-wheel alignment of a 2007 Cadillac CTS-V in this document using homemade alignment tools. I described the tools in a previous document. The alignment
More informationAE 451 Aeronautical Engineering Design Final Examination. Instructor: Prof. Dr. Serkan ÖZGEN Date:
Instructor: Prof. Dr. Serkan ÖZGEN Date: 11.01.2012 1. a) (8 pts) In what aspects an instantaneous turn performance is different from sustained turn? b) (8 pts) A low wing loading will always increase
More informationWelcome to the Airbus A380 Basic Manual for Virtual Air Cadet Airlines.
Welcome to the Airbus A380 Basic Manual for Virtual Air Cadet Airlines. Performance figures: Max operating speed: 340kts / M0.89 Max gear speed: 250kts / M0.55 Max flap speeds: Code: Select all Flaps Speed
More information