2010 Air Emissions Inventory

Transcription

1 SECTION 2 OCEAN-GOING VESSELS This section presents emissions estimates for the OGV source category, including source description (2.1), geographical delineation (2.2), data and information acquisition (2.3), operational profiles (2.4), emissions estimation methodology (2.5), and the emission estimates (2.6). 2.1 Source Description Based on 2010 data obtained from the Marine Exchange of Southern California (MarEx), there were a total of 2,212 vessel calls (arrivals not including shifts) to the port during The OGVs calling the Port can be broadly divided into two groups: containerships, which are the predominant ship category for POLB, and non-containerships. Containerships are designed to carry mainly 20 and 40(+) foot containers in their holds and on their decks. These vessels are primarily used by shipping lines to transport retail goods and other containerized cargo. The twenty-foot equivalent unit (TEU) is a standard unit for describing a container ship's cargocarrying capacity, and is based on the size of a twenty-foot shipping container. For example, a 2,000-TEU vessel can accommodate 2, foot containers. Table 2.1 summarizes the total number of calls of all OGV types, the total number of containership calls, the total number of TEUs handled by the Port in 2005 and 2010, and the average container density, expressed as TEUs per containership call. In 2010, a total of approximately 6.3 million TEUs were handled at the Port compared to 6.7 million TEUs in 2005, representing a 7% reduction in 2010, which is reflective of recent global economic conditions. The number of vessel calls at the Port decreased by 18%. The average number of TEUs per containership call in 2010 was approximately 3% higher than in 2005, which indicates that containerships were discharging and loading slightly more containers during each call due to the fewer container vessel calls in Table 2.1: TEUs and Vessel Call Comparison, % All Containership Average Year Calls Calls TEUs TEUs/Call ,690 1,332 6,709,818 5, ,212 1,203 6,263,499 5,207 Change (%) -18% -10% -7% 3% Port of Long Beach 30 July 2011

2 OGVs are further categorized into the following vessel types for the purposes of this EI: Auto carrier Containership General cargo Miscellaneous Vessel Roll-on roll-off Vessel (RoRo) Bulk carrier Passenger cruise vessel Ocean-going Tugboat (ITB/ATB) Refrigerated Vessel (Reefer) Tanker Auto Carriers Auto carriers transport vehicles. They have drivable ramps and can have substantial ventilation systems to prevent vehicle fuel vapors from pooling in the lower decks. Bulk Carriers Bulk carriers have open holds with giant hatches to carry dry goods such as coal, petroleum coke, salt, sugar, cement, gypsum, and other similar fine-grained commodities. Containerships Containerships carry 20- and 40-foot containers on their decks, and are primarily used by shipping lines to transport retail goods. Containerships are divided into subtypes based on their TEU capacity. Passenger Cruise Vessels Passenger cruise vessels vary in overall size, onboard auxiliary power and engine configuration. These vessels have significant auxiliary engine demands to provide heating and electricity for thousands of passengers. Port of Long Beach 31 July 2011

3 General Cargo Vessels General cargo vessels carry diverse cargo such as steel, palletized goods, large heavy-duty machinery, and other heavy loads. Containers can also be carried on the vessel s top deck. Ocean-going Tugboats Commonly known as integrated tug barges (ITB) and articulated tug barges (ATB), the barge stern of the vessel is notched to accept a special tug which can be rigidly connected to the barge forming a single vessel. ITBs and ATBs are included in the ocean-going vessel inventory. Refrigerated Vessels Often called Reefers, these vessels are able to keep perishable cargo such as fruits, vegetables, and meats cool. Most of the cargo is stored below deck on pallets or transported inside refrigerated containers that are placed on top of the closed cargo hold. Roll on-roll off Vessels RoRos, as they are typically known, are similar to automobile carriers, but can accommodate larger wheeled equipment, such as construction equipment. Tanker Vessels Tanker vessels transport liquids in bulk such as oil, chemicals, and specialty products such as tallow and molasses. Crude oil tankers are categorized into different categories depending on their dimensions. Port of Long Beach 32 July 2011

4 In 2010, containerships made up the majority (54%) of OGV calls to the Port, followed by tankers (21%), bulk carriers (8%), cruise vessels (7%), auto carriers (6%), and general cargo vessels (3%). ITB/ATB, reefers, and RoRos accounted for the remaining 1%. Figure 2.1 shows the percentage of calls by vessel type. Figure 2.1: Distribution of Calls by Vessel Type Auto Carrier Cruise 6% 7% General Cargo 3% Other 1% Containership 54% Bulk Carrier 8% Tanker 21% Appendix B includes information about the vessels that called at the Port of Long Beach, including vessel flags of convenience, vessel characteristics, and a summary of vessels classified as frequent callers to the Port. 2.2 Geographical Domain & Shipping Routes The geographical domain of the OGV EI is the same boundary that has been used in the previous Port EIs since Originally selected to be consistent with the regulatory OGV EIs for the region, the geographical or over-water boundary is used to define the lengths of the various shipping routes used to access the Port. The geographic domain includes the area from the Port s berths and channels to the breakwater and beyond the breakwater to the following points that form a box that extends seaward from the Port: The northwest corner is located where the Ventura County and Los Angeles County lines intersect the Pacific Ocean [ north (N) latitude by west (W) longitude]. The southwest corner is located over the water, just south of the Territorial Sea boundary, south of San Nicolas Island ( N latitude by W longitude). The southeast corner is located over the water, south of the Territorial Sea, south of San Clemente Island ( N latitude by W longitude). The northeast corner is located where the Orange County and San Diego County lines intersect the Pacific Ocean ( N latitude by W longitude). Port of Long Beach 33 July 2011

5 There are four primary shipping routes into the Port as designated by MarEx. 15 The North Route is typically used in West Coast United States/Canada and trans-pacific voyages, the East Route is used in transits to and from El Segundo Bay, the South Route is used in Central/South American and Oceania voyages, and the West Route is used in Hawaiian and eastern Oceania voyages. Each route is comprised of an inbound and an outbound lane, which separate vessel traffic arriving and departing the Port. The distances of these routes from the outer edge of the precautionary zone (PZ) to the over-water boundary and the distances of these routes from the breakwater (BW) to the outer edge of the PZ are listed in Table 2.2. These distances represent average distances traveled by ships on each route. Table 2.2: Average Route Distances, nm Shipping PZ to Boundary BW to PZ Route Distance (nm) Distance (nm) Inbound Outbound Inbound Outbound North West South East The routes are further segmented by two compliance zones based on Clean Air Action Plan emission reduction strategies. The 20 nautical mile (nm) zone is from the outer edge of the PZ to an arc 20 nm in radius from Point Fermin. The 20 to 40 nm zone is from the 20 nm arc to a further arc with a radius of 40 nm from Point Fermin. Starting on July 1, 2009 the CARB OGV Fuel Regulation requires ships to use distillate fuels instead of residual fuels when within 24 nm of the California coastline. Prior to the regulation, the North route was the predominant route for trade with Asia and points north of Long Beach. Since the regulation became effective, the West route (west of the Channel Islands) has become the predominant shipping route for ships trading with Asia and points north of Long Beach, presumably to avoid the CARB OGV Fuel Regulation compliance zone This shift in route selection is highlighted Table Marine Exchange of California of Southern California, Vessel Tracking Service. Port of Long Beach 34 July 2011

6 Table 2.3: Route Distribution of Annual Calls Distribution of Annual Calls Route North 55% 38% 11% West 9% 22% 51% South 35% 39% 37% East 1% 1% 1% Figure 2.2 shows the boundary of the study area as well as the major shipping routes and the 24 nautical mile (nm) line of the California coastline for the CARB OGV Fuel Regulation 16, shown as the black line that runs a constant distance from the California coastline. Figure 2.2: Geographical Extent and Major Shipping Routes 16 California Air Resources Board, Fuel Regulations for Ocean-Going Vessels, Adopted July 24, 2008, 13 CCR and 17 CCR Port of Long Beach 35 July 2011

7 Figure 2.3 shows the PZ, which is a designated area where ships must travel slowly in preparation to enter or exit the port. In this zone the pilots are picked up or dropped off. The harbor is located within the breakwater and is characterized by the slowest vessel speeds. Figure 2.3: Precautionary Zone 2.3 Data and Information Acquisition Various sources of data and operational knowledge about the Port s marine activities have been used to compile the data necessary to prepare emission estimates. These sources include: Marine Exchange of Southern California Vessel Speed Reduction Program speed data Jacobsen Pilot Service IHS Fairplay - Lloyd s Register of Ships Port Vessel Boarding Program data Terminals (shore power) Port of Long Beach 36 July 2011

8 Each data source is detailed in the following subsections Marine Exchange of Southern California MarEx operates the Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) in cooperation with the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG), the ports of Long Beach and Los Angeles, and the State of California. The VTS was established in 1994 to provide traffic safety, traffic monitoring and security functions for the two ports, and is the first private/public VTS partnership in the country that is funded by industry. MarEx requires ships to report their activities to the VTS upon arrival and departure and tracks ship routes. The MarEx data evaluated in developing emission estimates includes vessel names, arrival and departure dates and times, transit speeds and directions, berth of destination, route designation, and other information. This data source is the primary basis for establishing: Distribution of arrival and departure travel directions by route Number of ship calls Names of vessels and International Maritime Organization (IMO) number Vessel origination and destination Calculated hotelling time Vessel Speed Reduction Program Data MarEx monitors OGV speeds in the four shipping routes as part of a VSR program that began in May Vessel speed information is recorded for each shipping route at a series of waypoints, located on arcs emanating from Point Fermin. The vessel speeds are measured in 5 nm increments, from the 10 nm waypoint outside the PZ to the 40 nm waypoint. The measurement of vessel speeds from the 25 nm to 40 nm waypoints began in April 2008; previously, only speeds up to the 20 nm waypoint were measured. The speed in the PZ is not monitored by MarEx (see section for assigned PZ speeds by vessel type); however, USCG regulation limits speed within the PZ to 12 knots 17. In preparing the MarEx speed data for use in estimating emissions, the data is first analyzed to identify erroneous results, such as blanks, zeros, and recorded speeds over 40 knots. Missing speeds or inaccurate values are marked as blanks and then populated using a methodology based on available similar vessel types and their speeds through the various waypoints. 17 Marine Exchange of Southern California and USCG, Los Angeles-Long Beach Vessel Traffic Service User Manual, Revised May 1, Port of Long Beach 37 July 2011

9 The methodology used to populate blank vessel speeds uses the 25 nm to 40 nm speed data to develop adjustment factors that correlate average speeds at the 40 nm waypoint with the maximum speed value reported by Lloyd s for each vessel. Adjustment factors have been developed for each vessel subtype, and for VSR compliant and noncompliant vessel trips. The adjustment factors are applied to a vessel's Lloyd's speed in each instance where MarEx speeds are not provided or are erroneous. They are applied on a trip-by-trip basis. This methodology was also used to recalculate the 2005 emissions in order to allow for a direct comparison of the 2005 emissions with the 2010 emissions (see Section 8). For each vessel trip, the average speeds within each segment are calculated by averaging the waypoint speeds at each end of the zone; e.g., the average speed within the 20 nm zone is calculated as the average of the speed at the 15 nm waypoint and the speed at the 20 nm waypoint [(speed at 15 + speed at 20)/2]. This method for estimating average speeds for the zone or leg of transit is consistent with the propulsion engine activity methodology for calculating load and time (see section 2.5.3) Jacobsen Pilot Service The Jacobsen Pilot Service maintains an automated database which documents the times when the pilot took control of the ship s bridge and when the pilot relinquished control back to the ship s officers. These dates and times have been used to estimate transit time profiles for maneuvering from berth to the PZ for the following movements: Inbound from sea Outbound to sea Anchorage shifts Other shifts - inter-port and intra-port shifts Shifts are vessel movements within a port; please refer to section 2.4 for further explanation. Average in-harbor maneuvering times were used for each movement, ship type and terminal based on average trip times IHS Fairplay - Lloyd s Register of Ships The information source commonly known as "Lloyd s Register" 18 is considered to be the leading resource for ship characteristics such as build year, tonnage, rated speed and propulsion engine power, engine power plant configuration, age, and other parameters. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) and vessel classification societies do not require reporting of vessel auxiliary power characteristics therefore Lloyd s Register is generally incomplete for this information. 18 IHS markets this information as IHS Fairplay. See: Port of Long Beach 38 July 2011

10 The Lloyd s Register data used in this report were obtained from IHS Fairplay in January The Lloyd s vessel information is matched against the vessels reported in the MarEx data as having called the Port in 2010 to establish the characteristics of each vessel that called. With the 2010 data, there is a 99% match based on IMO number between the Lloyd s Register and the MarEx data sets. There are 8 vessels, together accounting for only 1% of all vessels in 2010, that are not covered by the Lloyd s Register data. For these 8 vessels, the average propulsion engine power and speed of similar types of vessel have been used as defaults for specific data; these averages are provided in Appendix B. The auxiliary engine and boiler defaults are presented in sections and , respectively Vessel Boarding Program Survey Data The best sources of local activity data and ship parameters are the shipping lines that own and/or operate the vessels. The Port s VBP provides for an in-depth survey of OGVs during which Starcrest consultants board individual ships and interview the ship s executive and engineering staff, which usually includes the captain and chief engineer. For this inventory, information gathered from previous years boardings, along with new boarding data, has been used. The following VBP survey data has been used specifically in estimating emissions: Main engine power Auxiliary engine power Auxiliary engine load Boiler fuel consumption Vessels that switched fuels Emission reduction technologies such as slide valves Port of Long Beach 39 July 2011

11 Figure 2.4 presents the distribution by vessel type of the 43 vessels boarded at the Port between 2003 and Other vessels have been boarded at other ports, but the figure below is specific to vessels that have called the Port of Long Beach. Figure 2.4: Types of Vessels Boarded in , Percent Auto Carrier 7% Cruise Miscellaneous 2% Reefer RoRo 5% 2% 5% Tanker 7% Containership 72% Vessel Shore Power Data In 2010, several vessels calling at the Port used shore-side electrical power instead of running their diesel-powered auxiliary engines while at berth. Operators of the terminals that are equipped to provide shore-side power have provided the information regarding the number of vessel calls and corresponding berths that utilized shore power for hotelling operations. In 2010 shore power was used for 23 container vessel calls and 21 liquid bulk vessel calls, together representing about 2% of total vessel calls at the Port. 2.4 Operational Profiles Vessel activity has been evaluated as the number of trips by trip type (e.g. arrival, departure, and shift) and by trip segment. Trip segments are used for the at-sea portion of the ship trip between the open ocean and the PZ. The time in mode (e.g., the amount of time in transit, at berth or anchorage, and maneuvering) and the geographic segment (e.g., 10 nm, in harbor, at berth, etc.) are derived from the vessel activity. The following three sources of vessel activity information have been used: MarEx trip tables, which define arrivals, departures, and shifts MarEx speed tables, which define speeds for the VSR Program between 10 and 40 nm from Point Fermin in 5 nm increments Jacobsen Pilot Services data, which provides average transit times for harbor maneuvering Port of Long Beach 40 July 2011

12 Hotelling Hotelling time has been calculated by subtracting arrival time from departure time for periods while at berth or anchorage. This inventory uses the following ship movement types tracked by MarEx: Arrivals (inbound trips) Departures (outbound trips) Shifts (inter-port, intra-port, and anchorage shifts) Total movements (sum of all the above) Arrivals For this study, arrivals are defined as inbound trips from the sea to a berth and inbound trips from the sea to an anchorage. An inbound trip from the sea to an anchorage is assigned to the Port if the next call is a berth at the Port. Departures For this study, departures are defined as outbound trips from a berth or an anchorage to the sea. Shifts A shift is a vessel movement other than an arrival or a departure as defined above. While many vessels make only one arrival and one departure during a call to the Port, some vessels make multiple stops within the Port or between the Port and POLA. When a vessel shifts from one berth to another or from an anchorage to a berth, the transit emissions associated with that shift are allocated to the berth the vessel has moved to (rather than the berth the vessel has left). Three broad categories of shifts are considered in this EI: Intra-port shifts movements within a port from one berth to another. Inter-port shifts movements between adjacent ports. This is a common occurrence in co-located ports such as Long Beach and Los Angeles. Anchorage shifts movements between a terminal and an anchorage. For example, a vessel receives a partial load, goes to anchorage, and then returns to the terminal (or to another terminal) to complete loading. Port of Long Beach 41 July 2011

13 Table 2.4 presents the numbers of arrivals, departures, and shifts associated with vessels at the Port in The containerships are classified by TEU size. For example, a Container-2000 is a containership with a container capacity of 2,000 to 2,999 TEU and a Container-1000 is a containership with a container capacity up to 1,999 TEU. Arrival and departure numbers are not necessarily the same because some vessels arrive at one San Pedro Bay port, shift to the other port, and depart from that second port, so the arrival is counted for one port and the departure is counted for the other port. Table 2.4: Total OGV Movements Vessel Type Arrival Departure Shift Total Auto Carrier Bulk Bulk - Self Discharging Bulk Wood Chips Container Container Container Container Container Container Container Container Container Cruise General Cargo Ocean Tugs Reefer RoRo Tanker - Aframax Tanker - Chemical Tanker - Handyboat Tanker - Panamax Tanker - Suezmax Tanker - VLCC Total 2,212 2,189 1,111 5,512 Port of Long Beach 42 July 2011

14 2.5 OGV Emissions Estimation Methodology Emissions from propulsion engines, auxiliary engines, and auxiliary boilers have been estimated as a function of vessel power demand in which energy, expressed in kilowatt-hours (kw-hrs), is multiplied by an emission factor, expressed in terms of grams per kilowatt-hour (g/kw-hr). Emission factor adjustments and correction factors are then applied to the various activity data to account for the type of fuel used in the engines, as well as various emissions reduction measures. The emissions estimation methodology section discusses methodology used for propulsion (main) engines (subsections to 2.5.7), auxiliary engines (subsections and 2.5.9), and auxiliary boilers (subsection ). Incinerators are not included in the emissions estimates because incinerators are not used within the study area. Interviews with the vessel operators and marine industry, in general, report that vessels do not use their incinerators while at berth or near coastal waters Equations 2.1 and 2.2 are the basic equations used in estimating emissions for propulsion engines, auxiliary engines and boilers. Equation 2.1 E = Energy EF FCF CF Where: E = Emissions from the engine(s) Energy = Energy demand, in kw-hrs, calculated using Equation 2.2 below as the energy output of the engine (or engines) over the period of time EF = Emission factor, usually expressed in terms of g/kw-hr FCF = Fuel correction factor CF = Correction factors for emission reduction measures Energy is calculated using Equation 2.2: Energy = Power LF Act Equation 2.2 Where: Energy = Energy demand, kw-hrs Power = maximum continuous rated (MCR) propulsion engine power or total installed power for auxiliary engines or auxiliary boiler load, kw LF = load factor (unitless) Act = actual activity, hours Propulsion Engine Maximum Continuous Rated (MCR) Power MCR power is defined as the manufacturer s tested engine power; for this study, it is assumed that the Lloyd s Power value is the best surrogate for MCR power. The international convention is to report MCR in kilowatts. MCR is related to the highest power available from a ship engine during average conditions, including sea conditions and cargo load. Port of Long Beach 43 July 2011

15 2.5.2 Propulsion Engine Load Factor The propulsion engine load factor is the ratio of an engine's power output at a given speed to the engine's MCR power. The load factor is estimated using the Propeller Law, which states that the propulsion engine load varies with the cube of the vessel speed. Therefore, a vessel s propulsion engine load at a given speed is estimated by taking the cube of that speed divided by the vessel's maximum speed, as shown by the following equation. Equation 2.3 LF = (AS / MS) 3 Where: LF = load factor, percent AS = actual speed, knots MS = maximum speed, knots For the purpose of estimating emissions, the load factor has been capped at 1.0 so that there are no calculated propulsion engine load factors greater than 100% (i.e., calculated load factors above 1.0 are assigned a load factor of 1.0) Propulsion Engine Activity Activity is measured in hours of operation. Average in-harbor maneuvering times have been developed from Pilot data. A vessel s transit time in the PZ and the area outside the PZ to the edge of the geographical boundary is estimated using equation 2.4. Act = D/AS Equation 2.4 Where: Act = activity, hours D = distance, nm AS = ship speed, knots Actual speeds provided by MarEx (discussed in section 2.3.2) have been used for estimating vessel transit time. Under the Port s Green Flag Program, many vessels reduce their speeds to 12 knots within 40 nm of the harbor. Port of Long Beach 44 July 2011

16 The PZ uses assigned speeds based on VBP data, as shown in Table 2.5. Table 2.5: Precautionary Zone Speed, knots Vessel Type Class Speed Auto Carrier Fast 11.0 Bulk Slow 9.0 Containership Fast 11.0 Cruise Fast 11.0 General Cargo Slow 9.0 Miscellaneous Slow 9.0 Ocean Tug Slow 9.0 Reefer Slow 9.0 RoRo Slow 9.0 Tanker Slow Propulsion Engine Emission Factors The two predominant propulsion engine types are: Slow speed diesel engines, having maximum engine speeds less than 130 revolutions per minute (rpm) Medium speed diesel engines, having maximum engine speeds over 130 rpm (typically greater than 400 rpm) and less than 2,000 rpm. Steamship and gas turbine vessels also called the port in 2010, but they represent a small percentage of the total vessel calls. The propulsion engine emission factors for pollutants evaluated in this EI, except for PM, have been obtained from ENTEC UK Limited s (ENTEC) 2002 study Quantification of emissions from ships associated with ship movements between ports in the European Community 19. The PM emission factors for slow and medium speed diesel propulsion engines have been obtained from CARB 20. PM emission factors for gas turbine and steamship vessels have been obtained from the IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute s (IVL) 2004 report Methodology for Calculating Emissions from Ships: update on Emission Factors. 21 The greenhouse gas emission factors for CO 2, CH 4 and N 2 O have been obtained from the 2004 IVL study. The emission factors are based on the use of residual oil which is intermediate fuel oil (IFO 380) or fuel with similar specifications, with an average sulfur content of 2.7%. 19 ENTEC, Quantification of Emissions from Ships Associated with Ship Movements between Ports in the European Community, Final Report, July Prepared for the European Commission (ENTEC 2002). 20 CARB, A Critical Review of Ocean-Going Vessel Particulate Matter Emission Factors, 9 Nov 07. See: 21 IVL, Methodology for Calculating Emissions from Ships: Update on Emission Factors. Prepared by IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute for the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. Port of Long Beach 45 July 2011

17 Tables 2.6 and 2.7 list the emission factors for propulsion engines using residual oil fuel. Table 2.6: Emission Factors for OGV Propulsion Engines using Residual Oil, g/kw-hr Engine Model PM 10 PM 2.5 DPM NO x SO x CO HC Year Slow speed diesel Medium speed diesel Slow speed diesel Medium speed diesel Gas turbine All Steamship All Table 2.7: GHG Emission Factors for OGV Propulsion Engines using Residual Oil, g/kw-hr Engine Model CO 2 N 2 O CH 4 Year Slow speed diesel Medium speed diesel Slow speed diesel Medium speed diesel Gas turbine all Steamship all Propulsion Engines Low Load Emission Factors Diesel-cycle engines loose efficiency when operated at low loads. A USEPA study 22 established a formula for calculating emission factors for low engine load conditions such as those encountered during harbor maneuvering and when traveling slowly at sea, as in the VSR zone. While mass emissions (i.e., tons) decrease as vessel speeds and engine loads decrease, the emission factors (i.e., g/kw-hr) increase. This is based on observations that compression-cycle combustion engines are less efficient at low loads. The following equations describe the low-load effect where emission rates can increase, based on a limited set of data from Lloyd s Register and the USCG. The low load effect was described in the 2002 Commercial Marine Inventory Development study conducted for the EPA by ENVIRON USEPA, Analysis of Commercial Marine Vessels Emissions and Fuel Consumption Data, February Prepared by Energy and Environmental Analysis, Inc. (EEAI) for Sierra Research work assignment No EPA-420-R USEPA, Commercial Marine Inventory Development, July Conducted by Environ. EPA 420-R Port of Long Beach 46 July 2011

18 Equation 2.5 is the EEAI formula used to generate the emission factors for engine loads ranging from 2% to 20% for each pollutant: Equation 2.5 y = a(fractional load) -x +b Where: y = emission factors in g/kw-hr a = coefficient b = intercept x = exponent (negative) fractional load = derived by the Propeller Law (see equation 2.3) Table 2.8 presents the variables used in Equation 2.5. These variables are slightly different from those reported in previous inventory reports due to slight modifications for rounding. Table 2.8: Low-Load Emission Factor Regression Equation Variables Pollutant Exponent (x) Intercept (b) Coefficient (a) PM NO x CO HC Port of Long Beach 47 July 2011

19 Table 2.9 presents the resulting emission factors based on Equation 2.5 and the variables in Table 2.7 for engine loads ranging from 2% to 20%. Table 2.9: EEAI Emission Factors, g/kw-hr Load PM NO x CO HC 2% % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % The low load adjusted emission factors developed by EEAI and presented in Table 2.9 above are based on a set of base (unadjusted) emission factors that are different from (and that predate) the emission factors used in this EI (listed above in Table 2.6). Because the adjusted emission factors are not based on the same base emission factors as are used in this EI they cannot be used directly to estimate emissions at low load conditions. Therefore, a method has been developed (and first applied in the Port s Addendum to the 2002 Baseline Emissions Inventory covering OGVs 24 ) to calculate adjustment factors that can be applied to the emission factors used in this inventory (Table 2.6). 24 Addendum to 2002 Baseline Emissions Inventory, September Port of Long Beach 48 July 2011

20 The method used to calculate the Low Load Adjustment (LLA) multipliers that are applied to the propulsion engine g/kw-hr emission factors is to divide each of the EEAI emission factors at loads under 20% by the EEAI emission factor at 20% load using Equation 2.6. This results in numbers greater than one that are multiplied by the base emission factors to provide the same percentage increase at low loads as calculated using the method presented in the EEAI report (and summarized in equation 2.5 and Tables 2.8 and 2.9). At 20% engine load, the adjustment factor is exactly 1.0 since the 20% load emission factor is divided into itself. Equation 2.6 LLA (at x% load) = y (at x% load) / y (at 20% load) Where: LLA = Low load adjustment multiplier x = engine load factor less than or equal to 20% y = emission factor in g/kw-hr from Table 2.9 Table 2.10 lists the resulting low-load adjustment factors for diesel propulsion engines. Adjustments to the N 2 O and CH 4 emission factors are made on the basis of the NO x and HC low load adjustments, respectively. The LLA is not applied at engine loads greater than 20%. For propulsion engine loads below 20%, the LLA increases so as to reflect increased emissions (on a g/kw-hr basis) due to engine inefficiency. Low load emission factors are not applied to steamships or ships having gas turbines because the EPA study only observed a rise in emissions from slow speed diesel engines. Table 2.10: Low Load Adjustment Multipliers for Emission Factors Load PM NO x SO x CO HC CO 2 N 2 O CH 4 2% % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % Port of Long Beach 49 July 2011

21 The low load emission factor is calculated for each pollutant using Equation 2.7. In keeping with the port's emission estimating practice of assuming a minimum main engine load of 2%, the table of LLA factors does not include values for 1% load. Equation 2.7 EF = Base EF LLA Where: EF = Resulting emission factor Base EF = Emission factor for slow speed diesel propulsion engines (see Tables 2.5 and 2.6) LLA = Low load adjustment multiplier (see Table 2.9) In discussions about the LLA s presented above with MAN B&W and Wärtsilä, two of the major marine propulsion and auxiliary engine manufacturers, the engine manufacturers have indicated that these values are significantly higher than they would expect to see during normal engine operation at low loads. The LLA issue will be evaluated with the engine manufacturers during the next cycle of the EI and adjustments will be made as appropriate Propulsion Engine Harbor Maneuvering Loads Propulsion engine loads within a harbor tend to be very low, especially on in-bound trips when the propulsion engines are off for periods of time as the vessels are scrubbing speed and being maneuvered to their berths. During docking, when the ship is being positioned against the wharf, assist tugboats perform most of the work while the propulsion engines are typically off. Propulsion engine maneuvering loads are estimated using the Propeller Law, with the over-riding assumption that the lowest average engine load is 2%. The LLA multipliers are applied to the slow speed diesel propulsion engines. Harbor transit speeds within the breakwater have been profiled from VBP information as follows: Inbound fast ships (auto, container, cruise ships) at 7 knots Inbound slow ships (any other vessel type) at 5 knots Outbound traffic for all vessels at 8 knots A vessel s departure speed, and therefore departure load, is typically higher compared to the vessel s arrival speed and load because upon departure, the engine power is used to accelerate the vessel away from the berth, while upon arrival, the vessel usually travels slower and spends some time with the main engine off Propulsion Engine Power Defaults Most of the vessels that called the Port have been matched for main engine power using the most current Lloyd s data and VBP information, with the exception of 3 vessels, for which averages by similar vessel type are used for the defaults. The propulsion engine averages are found in the characteristics table in Appendix B. Port of Long Beach 50 July 2011

22 2.5.8 Auxiliary Engine Emission Factors This EI uses auxiliary engine emission factors obtained from the ENTEC study. The emission factors are presented in Tables 2.11 and Table 2.11: Emission Factors for Auxiliary Engines using Residual Oil, g/kw-hr Engine MY PM 10 PM 2.5 DPM NO x SO x CO 25 HC Medium speed Medium speed Table 2.12: GHG Emission Factors for Auxiliary Engines using Residual Oil, g/kw-hr Engine MY CO 2 N 2 O CH 4 Medium speed all Auxiliary Engine Load Defaults Lloyd s data contains limited information on vessels auxiliary engines because the IMO and vessel classification societies generally do not require reporting of vessel auxiliary power characteristics. For the vessels that called at the Port in 2010, installed auxiliary engine power information is present in the Lloyd s data for only 19% of the discrete vessels. For an additional 9% of the discrete vessels, auxiliary engine information has been gathered from vessel boardings and sister ships. Sister ships are vessels built as a series and with near-identical characteristics. The following hierarchy of data sources has been established to determine OGV auxiliary engine power loads: VBP Ships - latest reported transit, hotelling, and maneuvering loads for the boarded vessel VBP Sister Ships - latest reported transit, hotelling, and maneuvering loads based on the boarded vessel Port Defaults calculated average loads (auxiliary engine installed power x load factor) by vessel class for transit, hotelling, and maneuvering Based on the hierarchy above, if auxiliary engine loads by mode have been collected as part of the VBP, the most recent load information is used. If a sister vessel is identified as part of the VBP survey or based on information from the shipping line, then the latest information collected is used for the sister ship. If a vessel has not been boarded and does not have an identified sister ship, or if there are gaps in the VBP data, then defaults by vessel class and by mode have been used. 25 IVL Port of Long Beach 51 July 2011

23 Table 2.13 provides a distribution of the sources of auxiliary engine data for each vessel type. The containerships were classified by TEU size. For example, a Container-2000 is a containership with a container capacity of 2,000 to 2,999 TEU and a Container-1000 is a containership with a container capacity up to 1,999 TEU. Table 2.13: 2010 Sources of Auxiliary Engine Power Information, by Vessel Type Vessel Type VBP Sister Ships Lloyd's Default Total Auto Carrier Bulk Bulk - Self Discharging Bulk Wood Chips Container Container Container Container Container Container Container Container Container Cruise General Cargo Ocean Tugs Reefer RoRo Tanker - Aframax Tanker - Chemical Tanker - Handyboat Tanker - Panamax Tanker - Suezmax Tanker - VLCC Total Percentage of total 7% 2% 19% 73% 100% Port of Long Beach 52 July 2011

24 Defaults for auxiliary engine loads are developed using the averages of the installed auxiliary engine power (trip-weighted by vessel subclass using information from Lloyd s Register and VBP data) and multiplied by engine load factors by vessel class and by mode (e.g. transit, maneuvering, hotelling), which have been derived from historical VBP data. Since the defaults are developed based on the vessels that visit the Port in the year evaluated, defaults vary slightly from year to year due to changes in Lloyd s Register data or the type of vessels that visit the Port. Table 2.14 summarizes the auxiliary engine load defaults developed for the EI, by vessel subtype. For dieselelectric cruise ships, the calculated house load defaults are listed in Table Table 2.14: Calculated Auxiliary Engine Load Defaults, kw Auxiliary Engine Load Defaults (kw) Vessel Type Berth Anchorage Transit Maneuvering Hotelling Hotelling Auto Carrier 594 1,781 1, Bulk Bulk - Self Discharging 439 1, Bulk - Wood Chips Container , Container , Container ,826 1, Container ,420 1, Container ,255 4,729 1,448 1,255 Container ,669 6,421 1,926 1,669 Container ,404 5,400 1,620 1,404 Container ,551 5,965 1,789 1,551 Container ,498 5,760 1,728 1,498 Cruise 4,028 6,848 4,028 4,028 General Cargo 437 1, Ocean Tug Reefer 450 1, RoRo 594 1,781 1, Tanker - Aframax Tanker - Chemical Tanker - Handyboat Tanker - Panamax Tanker - Suezmax Tanker - VLCC 1,306 1,796 1,415 1,306 Port of Long Beach 53 July 2011

25 Table 2.15: Diesel Electric Cruise Ship Auxiliary Engine Load Defaults, kw Auxiliary Engine Load Defaults (kw) Vessel Type Passenger Berth Count Transit Maneuvering Hotelling Cruise, Diesel Electric 0-1,500 3,500 3,500 3,000 Cruise, Diesel Electric 1,500-2,000 7,000 7,000 6,500 Cruise, Diesel Electric 2,000-3,000 10,500 10,500 9,500 Cruise, Diesel Electric 3,000-3,500 11,000 11,000 10,000 Cruise, Diesel Electric 3,500-4,000 11,500 11,500 10,500 Cruise, Diesel Electric 4, ,000 12,000 11, Auxiliary Boiler Emission Factors In addition to the auxiliary engines that are used to generate electricity for on-board uses, most OGVs have one or more fuel-fired boilers used for fuel heating and for producing hot water. Boilers are typically not used during transit at sea since many vessels are equipped with an exhaust gas recovery system or economizer that uses the heat of the main engine s exhaust for heating fuel or water. Therefore, the fuel-fired boilers are not needed when the main engines are used at typical speeds traveled while at sea. Vessel speeds have been reduced in recent years due to increased compliance with the VSR program extending up to 40 nm. With these lower speeds, it is believed that auxiliary boilers are used more often during transit because the lower speeds result in the cooling of main engine exhausts, making the vessels economizers less effective. As such, it is assumed for the emission calculations that auxiliary boilers operate during maneuvering and transit when the main engine load factor is calculated to be less than 20%. Table 2.16 and Table 2.17 show the emission factors used for the fuel-fired boilers; these emission factors have been obtained from ENTEC s 2002 study. Table 2.16: Emission Factors for OGV Auxiliary Boilers using Residual Oil, g/kw-hr PM 10 PM 2.5 DPM NO x SO x CO HC Steam boilers Table 2.17: GHG Emission Factors for OGV Auxiliary Boilers using Residual Oil, g/kwhr CO 2 N 2 O CH 4 Steam boilers Port of Long Beach 54 July 2011

26 Auxiliary Boiler Load Defaults The Lloyd s data obtained from HIS Fairplay does not provided information on vessels boilers. Therefore, the primary source for boiler fuel consumption data is information collected from vessels during the VBP. Reported fuel consumption rates have been converted to equivalent kw using specific fuel consumption (SFC) factors found in the 2002 ENTEC report 26. The average SFC value for boilers burning residual fuel is 305 grams of fuel per kw-hour. The average kw for auxiliary boilers was calculated using the following equation, where daily fuel is the reported average fuel consumption rate in tonnes per day. Equation 2.8 Average kw = ((daily fuel/24 hrs/day) 1,000,000 g/tonne)/305 g/kw-hr Table 2.16 presents the calculated auxiliary boiler load defaults, in kw, used for each vessel type. Cruise ships and tankers (except for diesel-electric tankers and cruise ships) have much higher auxiliary boiler usage rates than the other vessel types. Cruise ships have higher boiler usage due to the number of passengers and need for hot water. Tankers boilers provide steam for steampowered liquid pumps, inert gas for storage tanks, and heat to keep fuel warm for pumping. Ocean tugboats do not have boilers; therefore their boiler load default is zero. As previously mentioned, boilers are not typically used at sea during normal transit; therefore the boiler load default at sea is zero (if main engine load is greater than 20%). If the main engine load is less than or equal to 20%, the maneuvering boiler load defaults shown in Table 2.18 are used. The auxiliary boiler load defaults are based on the latest available VBP data, and therefore, are different from the defaults used in previous inventories. 26 ENTEC, Quantification of Emissions from Ships Associated with Ship Movements between Ports in the European Community, Final Report, July Prepared for the European Commission (ENTEC 2002). Port of Long Beach 55 July 2011

27 Table 2.18: Auxiliary Boiler Energy Defaults, kw Boiler Load Defaults (kw) Vessel Type Berth Anchorage Transit Maneuvering Hotelling Hotelling Auto Carrier Bulk Bulk - Self Discharging Bulk - Wood Chips Container Container Container Container Container Container Container Container Container Cruise 0 1,705 1,705 1,705 General Cargo Ocean Tug Reefer RoRo Tanker - Aframax , Tanker - Chemical , Tanker - Handyboat , Tanker - Panamax , Tanker - Suezmax , Tanker - VLCC , Port of Long Beach 56 July 2011

28 Fuel Correction Factors Fuel correction factors are used to adjust the emission estimates to account for fuels or other parameters that are different from the conditions under which the emission factors were developed. As discussed earlier, the emission factors are appropriate for engines using residual fuel with an average 2.7% sulfur content or marine diesel oil with an average 1.5% sulfur content. Table 2.19 lists the fuel correction factors used when the emission factors that are based on 2.7% sulfur fuel are used for engines that burned a fuel with a lower sulfur content. These fuel correction factors are consistent with those used by CARB in their emission estimations methodology for ocean-going vessels 27. The FCFs are applied to propulsion engines, auxiliary engines, and auxiliary boilers if they have switched fuel from the default residual fuel (2.7% average sulfur content) to a lower sulfur content fuel. Table 2.19: Fuel Correction Factors Actual Fuel Sulfur Content PM NO x SO x CO HC CO 2 N 2 O CH 4 HFO 1.5% MDO 1.5% MGO 0.5% MGO 0.2% MGO 0.1% Beginning 1 July 2009, CARB s OGV Fuel Regulation, adopted in July 2008, required vessel operators to use marine gas oil (MGO) with a sulfur content less than 1.5% by weight or marine diesel oil (MDO) with a sulfur content equal to or less than 0.5% by weight within 24 nm from California coast (and while at berth) in their diesel powered propulsion engines, auxiliary engines and auxiliary boilers. During this period, an average 0.5% sulfur fuel content has been assumed for main and auxiliary engines and for auxiliary boilers. For the 2010 calendar year, 100% compliance with CARB s regulation has been assumed, and this assumption has been confirmed by CARB. To the Port s knowledge, there was only one non-compliant vessel that called the Port one time in 2010, and it was fined by CARB for not switching to lower sulfur fuel. The emission estimates presented in this inventory do not reflect the vessel not complying with the regulation on that one call, but the impact to total emissions is negligible. CARB issued several Essential Modification Executive Orders exempting individual vessels from the fuel use specifications described in the OGV Fuel Regulation for vessels. CARB s website 28 lists the vessels that were granted the exemption after demonstrating that it is not feasible to use the specified fuels in their auxiliary boilers unless essential modifications to the vessels are made. The exemptions for individual vessels are reflected in the calculated OGV emissions. For these particular vessels, if the vessel called the Port in 2010, the fuel switching was not included for the boilers; therefore, the emissions were estimated for the boilers as burning residual fuel. 27 See Appendix D, Tables II-6 to II See Port of Long Beach 57 July 2011

29 Emission Reduction Technologies Control factors are used to take into account the emissions benefits associated with emission reduction technologies. One such technology for certain slow speed propulsion engines is the fuel slide valve. This type of fuel valve leads to a better combustion process, less smoke, and lower fuel consumption, which can result in reduced overall emissions of NO x and for PM. Vessel engines designed by MAN B&W and built in 2004 and later are assumed, for this inventory, to be equipped with the fuel slide valves, based on conversations with MAN B&W personnel. Some companies are also retrofitting their vessels equipped with MAN B&W main engines built before 2004 with slide valves. Since information on slide valve retrofits has primarily been collected through VBP surveys, the inventory may not have captured all the vessels that have been retrofitted with slide valves. The emission reduction estimates for the slide valves have been reported by MAN B&W as based on their diesel engine emission measurements. The currently assumed emission reduction benefits, 30% for NO x and 25% for PM, are applied to 2004 and newer vessels equipped with MAN B&W engines as well as to existing engines known to be retrofitted with slide valves. The ports are continuing to work with MAN B&W and the Technical Working Group (TWG) to refine the emission benefits for slide valves used in new engines and as retrofits for future EIs to ensure that the latest available information is used. In 2010, fuel slide valves were used by 304 vessels that made 865 calls to the Port, representing 39% of all vessel calls. This includes the 2004 and newer vessels with MAN B&W slow-speed engines and vessels known to have retrofitted their main engines with slide valves. As an additional emission reduction technology, shore side electrical power was used for 44 vessel calls representing about 2% of all vessel calls. A reduction of 95% of all emissions from auxiliary engines while at berth has been assumed for ships that used shore side electrical power. This reduction estimate accounts for the time necessary to connect and disconnect the electrical power and to start up the auxiliary engines prior to departure Changes to methodology from previous years The OGV emission calculation methodology used in this inventory is similar to the 2009 methodology, but an improvement in activity data occurred in 2009 and 2010 as compared to the 2005 inventory. MarEx started to measure and record actual vessel speeds beyond 20 nm to 40 nm. This data allowed for better estimation of emissions within the 20 nm to 40 nm area, and provided a basis for the development of default transiting speeds for vessels that did not have a speed indicated within the 20 nm to 40 nm zone, as discussed previously. Due to this improvement, the 2005 vessel speeds (and emissions) from 20 nm to 40 nm have been reestimated using the 2010 transiting factors with the 2005 activity data, since the 2005 data set did not include speeds within this zone. This allows a more representative comparison between 2005 and 2010 emissions. Port of Long Beach 58 July 2011

30 2.6 OGV Emission Estimates A summary of the OGV emission estimates of all pollutants by vessel type in 2010 is presented in Tables 2.20 and Ocean-going vessel data is presented in Appendix B. Table 2.20: 2010 Ocean-going Vessel Emissions by Vessel Type, tpy Vessel Type PM 10 PM 2.5 DPM NO x SO x CO HC Auto Carrier Bulk Containership , Cruise General Cargo Ocean Tug Reefer RoRo Tanker , Total , , Table 2.21: 2010 Ocean-going Vessel GHG Emissions by Vessel Type, metric tons per year Vessel Type CO 2 CO 2 N 2 O CH 4 Equivalent Auto Carrier 5, , Bulk 8, , Containership 142, , Cruise 23, , General Cargo 3, , Ocean Tug Reefer RoRo Tanker 142, , Total 327, , Port of Long Beach 59 July 2011

31 Figure 2.5 shows percentage of emissions of each pollutant by vessel type. Containerships have the highest percentage of overall emissions for the vessels (approximately 35 to 50%), followed by tankers (approximately 25 to 50%), cruise ships, bulk vessels, auto carriers, general cargo, ocean tugs, reefers, and RoRos. The other category includes reefers, ocean-going tugboats and RoRos. Figure 2.5: 2010 Ocean-going Vessel Emissions by Vessel Type, % Emission Estimates by Engine Type Tables 2.22 and 2.23 present summaries of emission estimates by engine type in tons per year. Table 2.22: 2010 Ocean-going Vessel Emissions by Engine Type, tpy Engine Type PM 10 PM 2.5 DPM NO x SO x CO HC Auxiliary Engine , Auxiliary Boiler Main Engine , Total , , Port of Long Beach 60 July 2011

32 Table 2.23: 2010 Ocean-going Vessel GHG Emissions by Engine Type, metric tons Engine Type CO 2 CO 2 N 2 O CH 4 Equivalent Auxiliary Engine 150, , Auxiliary Boiler 120, , Main Engine 57, , Total 327, , Figure 2.6 shows results in percentages for emission estimates by engine type. Figure 2.6: 2010 Ocean-going Vessel Emissions by Engine Type, % CO 2 Equiv HC CO 2 SO x NO x DPM PM 2.5 PM 10 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Main Engine Auxiliary Engine Auxiliary Boiler Port of Long Beach 61 July 2011