The Advanced Lead Acid Battery Consortium PROSPECTUS ALABC, 2530 Meridian Parkway, Suite 115, Durham, NC 27713, U.S.A.

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2 The Advanced Lead Acid Battery Consortium PROSPECTUS ALABC, 2530 Meridian Parkway, Suite 115, Durham, NC 27713, U.S.A. 1

3 Executive Summary About this document This document is the full ALABC Prospectus. It provides a detailed progress review of the program and an in-depth explanation of the technical goals, and associated research areas of the Program. It is one of two documents describing the new ALABC Program. A separate, business-oriented non-technical overview of the ALABC Program can be found in the ALABC Program Overview Document. Current ALABC members, as well as prospective members, will be sent both documents. Overview Energy conservation is a key issue for the global economy moving forward both for cost and environmental reasons. Energy is also a major expense to society, whether for personal use or industry. Additionally, in the next few years, legislation restricting the emission of carbon dioxide (CO2) is expected to tighten. This large restructuring of the world economy will have a marked impact on the lead battery market and on the lead industry. The changes in emissions legislation that are mandated by governments around the world are unlikely to be affected by short-term fluctuations in the price of oil and gas. Further, the progressive transition of energy generation away from fossil sources to renewable forms of energy (which is also legislated by governments) may open new battery markets aimed at overcoming the intermittency problems inherent in energy generation technologies such as solar and wind. Lead batteries are already deployed for such applications but there is serious competition from other storage systems and battery chemistries, e.g. Lithium-ion. Despite overall high rates of growth for the rechargeable battery industry, lead battery demand is not growing at the same rate as that for batteries of some other chemistries that are seen as offering advantages for portable, automotive and storage applications. This is partly due to the fact that major investments made in battery chemistries by policy makers and venture capitalists have virtually ignored lead chemistries and have been focused principally on lithium-ion technologies. It is also to be expected that future automotive and energy storage technical requirements will be challenging for current level lead batteries, meaning that their power and life performance requires improvement in order to meet future needs and maintain market positions. In recent years, ALABC research has begun to show how specific power (including Dynamic Charge Acceptance) and service life can be significantly improved so that the prospects for lead acid batteries to remain the technology of choice in a major portion of the automotive market are strengthening. The further development of advanced lead batteries (including lead-carbon) underpinned by a strong research effort is thus vital to ensuring the continued growth of the lead battery and the lead industry. 2

4 ALABC Research Success Past ALABC Programs have been highly successful in overcoming problems that have limited lead acid battery performance in the past, such as: premature capacity loss, corrosion, water loss, and selective negative plate sulfation. This has involved developing optimized grid and cell designs, introducing advanced materials and additives for improved performance and durability, and establishing optimized charge regimes. The highly successful launch of several new lead acid battery designs that incorporate carbon additives to the negative plate has, to a large degree, stemmed from ALABC research. The judicious introduction of a carbon supplement has allowed enhanced flooded batteries (EFB) to capture a major share of the start-stop market, and the development of 48-volt (48V) batteries to be implemented successfully in the SuperHybrid vehicle programs. Using lead-carbon batteries in micro- and mild-hybrids has clearly shown that advanced lead batteries are the most cost-effective way to achieve CO2 emission targets. In addition, the excellent functionality of 48V lead-carbon batteries has resulted in demonstration programs being built in partnership with key automotive companies such as Ford and Hyundai ALABC program The ALABC program of pre-competitive research will be carried out with the aim of providing a strong foundation for further improvements of lead acid batteries in automotive applications where the duty cycle is extended beyond micro-hybrid service to higher levels of energy recovery. The work will also be aimed at industrial batteries, especially for utility energy storage, to improve life in applications where the charging regime puts higher stress level on batteries. These objectives will be best met if the research is focused on materials science and electrochemical studies to gain a deeper understanding of the properties of new materials and the battery processes taking place in modern, demanding applications. This research will be used to provide the tools for creating further improved designs. This is an area where the battery industry requires improvement as research efforts are necessarily directed to product development to meet more immediate needs. Demonstration programs will not be funded unless there is very strong justification and the associated costs are highly leveraged by outside partners and sponsors. The ALABC program will focus on basic processes in battery operation: Achieving high dynamic charge acceptance (DCA) in hybrid electric vehicles Minimizing gassing and water loss Achieving sustainable performance at elevated and lower temperatures Increasing energy efficiency Suppressing corrosion under high-rate partial state-of-charge (HRPSoC) cycling 3

5 Pre-competitive research in these areas will bring the added benefit of renewing future competence in the lead battery system, which has dwindled as young researchers are attracted to the well-funded lithium battery programs. ILA and ALABC in partnership From 2016, ALABC will operate as a collaborative project of ILA. This strategy includes closer integration of ILA with ALABC, with the aim of taking lead battery technology forward to the levels of performance required to make the lead battery the product of choice in most future automotive and electrical energy storage markets. The proposed partnership of ILA and ALABC is explained further in the ILA and ALABC Collaboration document. 4

6 Contents Executive Summary Introduction Lead and Lead Batteries Principal Applications of Secondary Batteries Automotive Applications Stationary Energy Storage Applications The ALABC Research Strategy Essential Development Areas Research Goals and Topics Consortium Research Funding and Benefits ALABC Program Status Introduction Demonstration Projects High voltage mild-hybrids retrofitted with carbon-enhanced lead batteries (Finalized 2009 project) Low voltage ALABC hybrids: the LC SuperHybrid Program Compressed Natural Gas Hybrid Electric Vehicle (2014) The USABC battery test project in the USA (2015) Advanced Battery Development Projects (Finalized projects) Final testing of advanced storage batteries Final testing of advanced 2V VRLA cells for Honda Insight (ISOLAB) Basic Research Projects ( program) Project 1315-SR1-Carbon: A Review (by M. Fernandez) Project 1315 STD1 (Narada, China) Project 1315-R1 (NMMU, South Africa) Public Affairs & Marketing Event Support and Demonstration Promotion Branding Activity Energy Storage Activity Strategic Planning Links to Government Initiatives Membership forms Benefits of ALABC membership General operating procedures Conclusions. 51 Reference list 51 5

7 Lead Use ('000 tonnes) Introduction 1.1 Lead and lead batteries Global production of lead continues to grow, and in recent times has risen from 2.5M tons per annum in 1960 to 11M tons in 2014 [1], primarily due to the increase in demand for lead batteries. In 2014, China alone produced almost 5M tons - more lead than the next nine biggest lead producing countries worldwide combined. The global market for battery production has changed significantly over the years. Figure 1 identifies the global end uses of lead in 1960 compared with today. The increasing use of refined lead metal in battery production can clearly be seen here, and the use of lead in batteries today accounts for more than 90% of the market (ca. 10Mt) [1]. The battery market is by far the largest end use of lead. It has shown a rapid eight-fold growth rate from 1960 to 2014, corresponding mostly to the increase in the number of automobiles worldwide. This is a remarkable growth rate exceeding 10% annually over the period Batteries Cable Sheathing Rolled and Extruded Products Shot/Ammunition Alloys Pigments and Other Compounds Gasoline Additives Miscellaneous Year Figure 1. Global applications of lead from 1960 to 2014 [2]. Lead battery use has increased significantly over time, and now accounts for ca. 90% of refined lead metal consumption. In the same period, China has increased battery manufacturing by a significant amount. In 1990, China used k tons of lead, but this had increased in 2014 to almost 5M tons, most of which was used in the battery industry. China is a major supplier of lead acid batteries of all types and dominates the market for small standby batteries and for batteries for 2-wheelers. In addition, there is a huge market, unique to China in the scale of the market, for electrically powered bicycles (e-bikes). China is also the largest producer of cars, and there is both a large original equipment and replacement market for automotive batteries. 6

8 A fact that separates lead batteries from all alternative battery technologies is their extremely high recycling rates. In the USA and in Europe, 99% of lead batteries are collected and recycled [3], [4]. This is significantly higher than the recycling rates for other consumer products, making lead batteries the most recycled consumer product. Furthermore, lead battery distribution, recovery and recycling is virtually a closed loop, meaning that 80% of a typical lead battery is composed of material that is recycled from older batteries. As mentioned throughout this document, lead batteries contribute to significant CO2 savings through use in both start-stop vehicles and mild-hybrids, and through the use of backup batteries in renewable energy sources, such as solar cells and wind turbines. Lead producers and battery manufacturers are also committed to responsible production through reducing their environmental emissions from lead and lead battery production. These lifecycle factors mean that lead batteries have a very low environmental footprint. The next few years will see a major shift in the requirements for lower emissions in the automotive industry. These are being mandated by governments around the world, and short-term fluctuations in the price of oil and gas will not shift the focus of legislators in this area. In addition, increasing deployment of renewable energy sources such as solar and wind will require large amounts of energy storage to overcome the intermittency inherent in these technologies. Both of these sectors use lead batteries at present, but there is stiff competition from other battery chemistries, particularly lithium-ion (Li-ion) and other energy storage systems. The further development of advanced lead acid and lead-carbon batteries, underpinned by a strong research effort is vital to ensure the continued growth of the lead acid battery and the lead industry. Further threats to the lead battery industry are the global policies that seek to ban hazardous substances. These policies could result in lead becoming a single-market battery material. These substitution policies are becoming a real threat to the long term displacement of lead batteries from traditional automotive markets. ALABC, therefore, has three fundamental goals to substantiate renewed investment in pre-competitive R&D on lead batteries. These are: Increasing the technical performance of lead batteries Ensuring a low environmental footprint for lead batteries Ensuring low production costs for unit kwh for both energy and power These three targets are incorporated into the ALABC R&D program for the coming three years, and the Consortium is well-positioned to accomplish these objectives. 7

9 Billion US $ Billion US$ 1.2 Principal Applications of Secondary Batteries The global battery market in 2013 was $54 Billion, and is expected to exceed $80 Billion in 2020 (Figure 2) Others (Flow battery, NAS, etc.) Li-ion NiMH NiCD Lead Acid 0 OTHERS AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRIAL E-BIKES POWER TOOLS PORTABLE SLI Fig. 2. Global battery market review and forecast depending on: a) battery chemistry (left), and b) major applications (right), [5]. Lead batteries continue to be the major electrochemical power source used in most applications except portable IT devices. In 2013, lead batteries were used for storing 330 GWh of energy, representing a total investment of $30 Billion. The major types SLI, industrial and electric bike batteries took 64%, 33% and 4% of these funds accordingly (Figure 3). Lead Acid Batteries, 2013, US $30 Billion (330 GWh) Industrial Batteries, 2013, US $10 Billion Telecom 64% SLI Industrial 24% 22% 12% UPS Other Stationary 3% 33% E-bikes 2% 40% Forklift Other motive Fig. 3. Lead-acid battery (LAB) market: a) total for LAB (left), b) industrial LAB (right), [5]. In the same year, the investment in industrial batteries for energy storage was $10 Billion. Forklift truck, telecom and backup batteries formed 40%, 24% and 22% of this volume respectively. Stationary batteries formed 12% of this market. Since 2012, the sales of automotive, industrial and power tool batteries has been growing fast. The sales of SLI batteries are growing, too, but at a lower rate. 8

10 Massive investments in the development of alternatives to lead acid batteries, as well as the hard work of electrochemists and engineers, has brought to market in the last years several new, advanced electrochemical storage systems like NiMH, NaS, Ni-Zn, Zn-Br, vanadium redox flow, and Li-ion batteries, which perform relatively well in various applications. As a result, the market share of the alternative battery technologies has been growing rapidly, from 5% in the 1990s to an expected level of 40% in The major part of this growth is realized in new applications that didn t exist two decades ago like HEVs. In 2013, lead batteries continued to be the market leader with 67%, but lithium batteries represented 31.5% of the market. In 2020, lead batteries are forecast to have a $47B market, closely followed by Li-ion with $32.5B. 1.3 Automotive Applications The technical requirements for automotive batteries have changed radically in recent years as a result of the need for multiple starting events, recuperation of kinetic energy and shallow cycling. The need for improved fuel economy has resulted in the introduction of start-stop or micro-hybrid systems to cars as one of the keys to achieving compliance with emissions regulations. Battery construction has also changed with second generation continuous plate manufacture and higher levels of automation being used across the industry. The industry has adopted valve-regulated lead-acid absorptive glass mat (VRLA AGM) constructions and the use of carbon additives in the negative plates to meet these requirements following pioneering work by ALABC. Further mandated reductions in CO2 emissions will demand more performance from the battery. Fig. 4. Forecasts about the future sales of micro HEV of: a) Avicenne Energy, 2013, market positions of micro and full HEVs in 2020 [6] (left), b) Lux research, 2014, future sales of 48V micro-hybrids (right). A variety of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and electric vehicles (EVs) have been developed by OEMs in order to meet lower emission levels. However, uptake of HEVs and EVs has been varied. For example, the full hybrid Prius has had better sales compared to mild hybrids. Plug-in and fully electric cars have also had higher sales than mild hybrids. Other parameters such as driving enjoyment and cost are strong market drivers, and can be considered to have contributed to a slowdown in the sales of the more electrified hybrids. This is expected to result in an increased market share for start-stop vehicles in the coming decade (Figure 4a). 9

11 According to another HEV market forecast presented by Valeo in 2014, start-stop vehicles are expected to be the most sold OEM vehicle type worldwide in the coming decade. In Europe the fraction of startstops will soon approach 90% of all vehicles, and the situation in Japan is similar (not shown here). In other countries, the percentage of start-stops is also expected to grow, but not as fast. Sales of full and plug-in hybrids, battery or fuel cell powered cars, are not expected to increase significantly before (Figure 5). Europe World Fig. 5. A 2012 forecast about the market position of the major HEV types until 2023 by Valeo: a) for Europe (left), and b) for the world (right) [7]. A brief review of the HEV types and the batteries used today in these vehicles is shown in Table 1. Lead batteries provide excellent functionality for SLI and start-stop vehicles, NiMH batteries are mostly utilized for mild- to full-hybrids, and Li-ion batteries are suitable for all hybrids, and in some cases startstop applications. The table also outlines the CO2 savings for each vehicle type. Micro-hybrids offer 3 to 8% reduction of CO2 emissions, mild-hybrids 8 to 12%, moderate and full-hybrids 12 to 35%, parallel plug-in hybrids over 35% and extended range plug-in hybrids over 50%. It can be seen that vehicles in which batteries provide more electric power and higher energy system voltage have the greatest CO2 emission savings [8, 9, 10]. It should also be noted that vehicles utilizing 48V batteries can deliver up to 12-15% CO2 benefits (even greater savings can be achieved through engine-downsizing and electrical performance boosting enough to meet government requirements), while keeping the electrical systems relatively simple and inexpensive. The excellent performance of 48V systems, and particularly the CO2 savings, has driven OEMs to look for vehicles combining the features of powering the vehicle s electrical components while idle (hoteling), start-stop, micro- and mild-hybrids, and powered by 48V batteries (Figure 4b). These are denoted as micro-hybrids, and increased sales are expected in the near future. All battery chemistries and combinations are eager to compete for the 48V segment of the market. 10

12 Table 1. A brief review of the HEV types and the batteries supposed to power them not considering the ALABC program contribution [8, 9, 10]. Advanced lead batteries have a very strong position in the above segments. This is due to a number of reasons. First, the dramatic improvement of their performance and the excellent chance for further improvement through focused R&D has increased the suitability of these batteries for the 48V market. The new generation of lead batteries has overcome the early negative plate sulfation the reason for short cycle life at HRPSoC cycling in HEVs. The UltraBattery (one of the carbon-added designs) lasts up to seven times as long as the unmodified AGM battery in this application. In addition, recent studies have shown that cells with carbon negative grids can overcome the early DCA decay of regular lead acid batteries a further issue in HEV applications. These improvements are shown in Figure 6. Source: P. Krammer, East Penn, Advanced Battery Technologies, 2014 Fig. 6. Dramatic performance improvement of advanced lead-acid batteries in HEV applications: a) in cycle life at HRPSoC cycling [11], left, and b) in DCA stability in the Ford DCA test [12], right. Secondly, the ALABC, in partnership with automobile design companies, has demonstrated a new HEV concept combining the CO2 benefits of micro/mild-hybrids with the low cost of start-stop vehicles the LC SuperHybrid (LCSH) for both 12V and 48V systems. Based on advanced lead-carbon batteries, this vehicle concept offers the auto industry a strong and cost-effective alternative to start-stop, micro-, mild-, and full-hybrids (Table 2). 11

13 Table 2. The change in the HEV & battery palette offered by the ALABC LCSH concept. Micro-1 Parallel PHEV LEAD-ACID Vehicle Type Extended Range EREV CO 2 Reduction, % 0 3% - 8% 30% 8-12% 12-20% 20-35% over 35% over 50% ALABC CO 2 range shift Sales forecast 2020 Regular DECLINE DOMINANT LC SUPER HYBRID RAPID RISE Hybrid MODERATE RISE LIMITED RISE LIMITED RISE ELECTRIC BATTERY El. Function SLI Start/Stop Start-stop + Regen Brake + Launch assist +Power assist Limited Electric Drive Extended Electric Drive Drive Motor El. Power, kw Voltage, V / Flooded * * * * * * EFB * * * VRLA (AGM) * * Lead Carbon) * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Li-Ion * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Ni-MH * * * * * * * * Another advantage of the LCSH concept is that all vehicle types can be modified into a super hybrid (or similar) version at much lower cost than is necessary for the regular hybrids powered by high-voltage NiMH or Li-ion batteries. This is illustrated in Table 3. Table 3. The other strength of the ALABC LCSH concept: much lower cost [13]. System Metric OEM on-cost *estimate Micro Hybrid * LC Super Hybrid Mild Hybrid Full Hybrid concept * * Plug-in Hybrid * CO 2 Benefit % 4-7 % 15-30% 8-12% 15-20% 20%+ OEM Cost/ Benefit /1% /1% /1% /1% /1% 12

14 Fig. 7. The Kia T-Hybrid concept, the ALABC has an ongoing program with Kia/Hyundai (Hyundai press release at the Geneva auto show, 2014) [13]. Summary 1.3 Past R&D work of ALABC has resulted in the development of a novel hybrid concept that utilizes a new lead-carbon battery and is capable of delivering substantial CO2 savings. This is a significant technical advancement that is available at a much lower cost than any alternative battery technology. This has resulted in OEM producers demonstrating an increased level of interest in these affordable, reliable and high-performance micro-hybrids. This can be seen in Figure 7, which depicts the T-Hybrid, a concept vehicle developed by Kia in conjunction with ALABC that uses advanced lead batteries. The continuing R&D work of ALABC is committed to developing safe, technically sound, and inexpensive batteries with a low environmental footprint for the automotive industry. 1.4 Stationary Energy Storage Applications Lead batteries are used for storage in a variety of grid-connected and remote power systems. The technology advancement for industrial batteries has not shifted to the same degree as automotive applications, but over time VRLA batteries have consolidated their position for standby batteries. There are important new applications for industrial batteries for utility energy storage in association with renewables and grid services. These require longer cycle life under conditions that put the battery under greater stress, and improvements in this sector will substantially benefit industrial batteries. 13

15 Fig. 8. Electrochemical storage technologies for grid connected energy storage systems in 2014 [14]. In 2014, grid-connected energy storage increased, reaching almost 150 GW; 97.56% of it based on pumped hydro systems. Thermal, flywheel and compressed air systems are used for 3 GW, and only 510 MW are stored in batteries (0.35%). Li-Ion and Sodium-Sulfur are the most used battery chemistries, followed by lead acid (Fig 8). Navigant Research shows lower energy storage values but similar distribution by storage technology. Lead batteries have a long development path still to go before they can reach the storage volumes of pumped heat electrical systems (PHES), compressed air and thermal energy systems. However, they can be considered as a rather attractive long term investment. In Fig 9, the estimated compound annual growth rate (CAGR) for is shown along with predictions for the 2015 market. The figure demonstrates that lead batteries have a CAGR that is well above average. Fig. 9. CAGR of various ESS technologies depending on use frequency, estimated using DOE data [14]. 14

16 Storage of renewable energy is an attractive battery market. Currently, photovoltaic (PV) storage is about 50 GW, and this value is expected to grow rapidly. The battery cycling profile in PV systems differs from that in stationary or deep-cycling applications. Due to long-time operation at partial state-of-charge (PSoC) and the presence of current pulses, it is similar to that in HEVs. Finding ways to improve battery performance in PV applications is an important challenge for the ALABC program. Fig. 10. PV test results of a VRLA battery, a Li-ion battery and an UltraBattery unit [15]. Advanced lead-carbon batteries (like East Penn Manufacturing s UltraBattery design developed by CSIRO in Australia) have been tested recently by Sandia National Laboratories in PV systems (Figure 10). They demonstrated up to eight times longer cycle life than AGM batteries currently used. This is an indication that such batteries in a PV system will need to be replaced very rarely or not at all for the life of the system. This will dramatically increase the CAGR value of advanced lead batteries and, combined with their environmental and production cost benefits, can make them one of the most profitable electrochemical energy storage systems. Summary 1.4 Advanced lead batteries can be considered as an excellent long-term investment with respect to energy storage applications. In particular, PV systems are expected to be an attractive market, and improved battery performance in these applications provides an excellent objective for the ALABC program. Batteries created or tested through ALABC work programs (advanced OPzV tubular design, UltraBattery design, and others) have already demonstrated significant improvements (such as significantly longer cycle life) that are expected to result in increased use of lead batteries in these applications. 15

17 2. ALABC Research strategy 2.1 Essential Development Areas The ALABC program has been driven by recent changes in the requirements to the battery in start-stop, micro- and mild-hybrid electric vehicles, and in renewable and utility energy storage systems. The technical program aims to identify and explain the life-limiting processes for batteries exposed to partial state-of-charge (PSoC) operation in these applications, and to overcome them by offering appropriate use of additives (carbons, expanders) to the negative plate, by further optimization of grid design and by the development of more efficient charge profiles. This approach has been very successful, and the resultant potential of advanced lead batteries to meet the new environment-related performance targets at minimal cost has been demonstrated in HEV projects, as well as in tests of batteries for PV systems. Altogether, six demonstration vehicles have been developed, tested and demonstrated. For the first time, large automotive OEM companies (Hyundai/Kia in Germany and Ford in the UK) have been directly involved in ALABC projects, and Chrysler in the USA has been very supportive of the Natural Gas Hybrid Vehicle (NGHV) project. Four start-up ALABC members (Advanced Battery Concepts, Energy Power Systems, and HighWater Innovations from the USA, and ArcActive from New Zealand) have created their own unique battery designs with lab performance parameters exceeding these of present lead acid batteries: up to 1500 W/kg, 60 Wh/kg, much longer cycle life and strongly enhanced DCA performance. These are encouraging signals for setting up future R&D projects aimed at bringing all of these benefits together in one battery, the impact of which could change the entire battery industry. Without basic improvements, the market position of lead batteries might be reduced in the coming one or two decades due to the competition by alternative advanced batteries. ALABC membership in China has grown to 10 companies, encompassing the largest battery manufacturers in the country. Along with the first project with Narada, other large companies have suggested promising projects (Sacred Sun, Camel, Tianneng, China Soto), potentially enhancing more rapid development of lead-acid technology. In the coming decade, lead-carbon batteries will have to compete more than ever with other advanced battery systems such as NiMH, Ni-Zn and Li-ion (LiFeP being the most aggressive competitor). Despite their lower maturity level, safety issues, lack of recycling strategy and higher production costs, these chemistries have substantial technical performance benefits that must be considered by the lead industry in its effort to keep lead batteries a leader in the most popular OEM vehicles micro/mild-hybrids. 16

18 DCA, A / Ah specific power, W.kg cell level Figure 11 shows a Ragone plot that demonstrates the performance capability of the major chemistries in 2008 and the room for progress for advanced lead batteries. The plots below illustrate the room for enhancements and possible performance targets for future R&D Super Caps 1000 Ragone Plot of HEV batteries (long cycle life) spiral Pb-A advanced Pb-A Pb-A: theoretical Wh/kg value 100 Pb-A: 50% of theoretical energy Li-ion, high energy 10 NiMH lead-acid Specific energy, Wh.kg cell level Fig. 11. Ragone plot of advanced batteries for HEV [16]. The most challenging battery parameters for start-stop, micro- and mild-hybrids are high dynamic charge acceptance (DCA), remaining stable through several months of road tests; high energy throughput (thousands of times the nominal capacity); and long cycle and calendar life (10 years and more). Energy throughput, times * C n Energy throughput and DCA Energy Throughput Dynamic charge acceptance lower weight! Honda Insight SLI Full HEV Prius (Ni-MH) Honda Civic Hybrid UltraBattery R test P-HEV (Li-ion) micro, mild start - stop Fig. 12. Development of advanced lead battery performance for HEV [16]

19 Information gained in meeting this market challenge is directly transferable to other applications in industrial and renewable energy systems. In Figure 12 on the previous page, a review of the performance parameters of advanced lead batteries for HEVs is summarized. The plot shows the best achieved values (up to the dashed green line in the center, which represents current status): solid dots equal achieved values; hollow dots indicate possible future targets. In recent ALABC projects, advanced lead batteries demonstrated the energy throughput needed for SLI, micro- and mild-hybrids, as well as sufficient charge acceptance for steady operation of the vehicle. The full triangles on the DCA curve in Figure 12 show values confirmed in aggressive DCA tests, while the hollow ones represent batteries with good road performance that haven t been DCA tested yet. It is clear that if lead batteries are to be used in full and plug-in applications they will need higher DCA and energy throughput values. In addition, they will also need to become lighter. This goal can be achieved by: increasing active mass utilization; reducing lead mass in top lead, grids, etc.; and replacing lead with lighter materials all time-consuming tasks. In most market forecasts, a relatively lower market share of full and hybrid vehicles is expected compared with micro- and mild-hybrids. This is why ALABC research will be focused on achieving high DCA, specific power (and energy) and long calendar life values required for 48V micro- and mild-hybrids by technologies that keep production cost per battery pack competitive [9]. The set of targeted values for ALABC R&D work in the next five years are shown in the ALABC technical roadmap developed at the end of 2013 (Table 4). The USABC requirements to 12V batteries in start-stop vehicles are sown for comparison in Table 5. The USABC condition is that the battery, capable of providing 360 Wh of energy at 1h rate at room temperature, also offers the voltage, power, weight, volume, number of cold crank events, and calendar life described in the table, and at costs not exceeding $220. Table 4. ALABC Technical roadmap for the period Parameter Units USABC USABC Lead-Acid Lead-Acid Required by 12 V 48 V Actual 2008 Actual 2014 Auto Industry Pulse discharge kw Peak recharge rate kw Dynamic charge acceptance A/Ah 1 5 Energy efficiency % Cycle life, equivalent starts k Available energy Wh Cold cranking energy kw Maximum weight kg Maximum volume l Positive AM utilization % Negative AM utilization % Cost (2014 $) $/kwh

20 Table 5. USABC requirements to the battery in a 12V start-stop vehicle [17]. Target End of Life Characteristics Units not under under hood hood Discharge Pulse, 1s kw 6 Max current, 0.5s A 900 Engine-off accessory load W 750 Cold cranking power at -30 C (three 4.5-s pulses, 6 kw for 0.5s followed by kw 10s rests between pulses at lower SOC) 4 kw for 4s Extended Stand Test (30 days at 30 C followed 6 kw for 0.5s followed by kw by cold crank test) 4 kw for 4s Min voltage under cold crank Vdc 8.0 Available energy (750W) Wh 360 Peak Recharge Rate, 10s kw 2.2 Sustained Recharge Rate W 750 Cycle life, every 10% life RPT with cold crank at Engine min SOC starts/miles 450,000 / 150,000 Calendar Life at 30 C, 45 C if under hood Years 15 at 45 o C 15 at 30 o C Minimum round trip energy efficiency % 95 Maximum allowable self-discharge rate Wh/day 10 Peak Operating Voltage, 10s Vdc 15.0 Sustained Max. Operating Voltage Vdc 14.6 Minimum Operating Voltage under load Vdc 10.5 Operating Temperature Range (available energy to allow 6 kw (1s) pulse) o C -30 to to C 52 C % 100 (to 75 C) C % C % C % C % 10.0 Survival Temperature Range (24 hours) o C -46 to to +66 Maximum System Weight kg 10.0 Maximum System Volume L 7.0 Maximum System Sales Price (@100k units/year) $ $220 $180 Summary 2.1 In contrast to most other battery chemistries currently in use, lead batteries only utilize a fraction of the energy available in their active materials. The limitations are technical and chemical: easy to produce but not optimal current collector designs; use of rather thick active mass layers; impeded electrolyte transport and local supply; and formation of undesired concentration gradients and barrier layers. Research can help the battery community overcome some of these limitations, or all of them. Successful research can provide lead batteries with possibilities of substantial improvement in the performance (specific power or specific energy, total energy throughput, and service life) without chemistry changes and substantial cost increase a unique possibility. Advanced battery designs and the use of new materials have demonstrated that lead batteries can provide performance comparable to that of nickel batteries, and further improvements can be expected to help even further. In mild- and micro-hevs, advanced lead batteries have demonstrated they can be used as long as necessary and deliver the same or larger CO2 emissions reduction than alternative battery technologies all this at a fraction of the cost and as a fully recyclable product. Advanced lead batteries also will operate well in renewable, grid and emergency energy storage, being an environmentally-friendly, safe and cost-efficient storage option. 19

21 2.2 Research Goals and Topics The ALABC will continue coordinating its research goals with other industries active in transportation and energy storage, such as electricity producers, grid/transmission utilities, and the natural gas industry, all of which are interested in advanced batteries for their programs. In this effort, the Consortium will strive to become involved in their larger R&D projects with an expanded stakeholder base. The driver for future pre-competitive research has been identified as battery cycling at high rate partial state-of-charge (HRPSoC). The main thrust is to extend the life of batteries. The major goals of research will be the achievement of: A. Adequate dynamic charge acceptance (DCA) in hybrid electric vehicles The charge acceptance (measured in A/Ah of nominal capacity) is a measure of how much of a high charge current pulse is utilized by the battery for actual recharge and not for side reactions such as gas evolution. High current charge pulses are sent to the battery, for instance, in every braking event of HEVs with a brake energy recuperation system. They are also part of the battery cycle profile in most clean or smart energy storage systems for renewable energy, utility storage, grid quality support, smart grids, etc. This battery parameter is not constant but decreases during the service life of the battery, i.e. it is dynamic by nature. In conventional batteries, it can decline rapidly (in a couple of weeks/months of operation) by 80-90%; during rest periods, it will restore only partially. Advanced lead batteries need to have not only high charge acceptance in order to be properly charged (a major condition for long cycle life), but also maintain a high DCA over the entire period of service life. The DCA problem is typical for lead batteries only; it is not observed in Li-ion or NiMH batteries [18]. B. Minimized gassing and water loss At the end of charge, hydrogen is evolved on the negative plate and oxygen at the positive plate of the battery as a result of water decomposition. Water loss can shorten the cycle life of the battery, especially in valve-regulated sealed designs. The rate of the undesired gassing side reactions increases at elevated voltage, which in turn can be observed during high current charge pulses. Gassing rate also depends on temperature, alloy composition, the presence of metal ions, impurities, or additives (like carbon, for instance) on electrolyte concentration and on cell design. All these dependencies need to be well-understood and precisely controlled in order to maintain water loss negligibly small over the service life of the battery in the particular application. C. Sustainable performance at elevated and lower temperatures. One of the strong advantages of lead batteries is their good performance at low and elevated temperatures. Despite the improvements in NiMH and Li-ion technologies, cold engine cranking at temperatures below -25 C is still possible only by lead batteries. The charge acceptance of lead batteries at low temperatures, however, can decrease, and this has to be avoided. Lead acid batteries operate well and remain safe at elevated temperatures (over C) observed often in cars and lightduty trucks. Not only are the rates of the charge and discharge reactions higher at elevated temperatures, but also those of the side reactions (gas evolution), as well as the rates of capacity loss and of active mass degradation. Keeping the temperature advantages of lead batteries in HRPSoC operation is an important factor in maintaining their leading market position. 20

22 D. Long service life and high energy efficiency at PSoC operation in energy storage applications Lead-acid batteries operate under various PSoC profiles in renewable energy storage, grid support, reserve, and motive power applications. Various current rates, state-of-charge windows and rest times create conditions for specific failure modes in opportunity charging, floating, hybrid telecommunication systems, forklift trucks, etc. Related to charge acceptance, the energy efficiency is determined by the ratio of the amount of energy drained out of the battery and the amount of energy necessary to recharge the battery in order to keep its capacity steady on cycling. This parameter is important in HEVs and especially in advanced energy storage systems. Lead batteries have lower energy efficiency than NiMH and especially Li-ion batteries. Increasing energy efficiency is an important condition for keeping lead batteries competitive as an energy storage device. The encouraging results from recent ALABC studies have shown that this is possible. E. Suppression of corrosion under HRPSoC cycling High rate charge pulses, longer operation time at PSoC, and the increased power and cycle life of carbon-added negative plates create conditions for a stronger corrosion attack of the positive plates. Finding ways to overcome this problem requires a deeper understanding of the corrosion processes at HRPSoC cycling, especially in the presence of carbon and other additives. Discussions with battery and applications experts at recent ALABC meetings have helped in collecting and summarizing opinions about the most important R&D topics. Below is an open list of membersuggested research topics that will be developed further: 1) Continue improving the performance of the negative plates by using carbon and other additives a) Quantify the capacitive effect of carbon (Faradaic process vs capacitive process) with various carbons cycled at narrow SoC windows and PSoC (HEV conditions) b) Conduct a fundamental study of the elementary steps of the processes involved in lead sulfate, lead and lead dioxide nucleation and crystal growth at HRPSoC with and without carbon, and consider the influence of other additives c) Characterize in detail the available carbon additives to the negative active material (NAM) and formulate recommendations of when to use and how to best process during manufacturing steps d) Examine specific adsorption and surface chemistry of lead and sulfate ions as well as of carboncontaining species (additives, expanders), and the role of specific adsorption for lead, lead sulfate and lead dioxide crystallization and recrystallization e) Examine paste mixing processes in the presence of carbon additives (incl. nanocarbons) f) Study the interacting mechanism of carbon with lead, lead sulfate, expanders, barium sulfate g) Study microstructure evolution of carbon-containing NAM during production, storage, operation h) Investigate a better model for the processes on/in a carbon-loaded negative plate i) Quantify the mechanisms of charge/discharge in a mathematical model 2) Enhance positive plate performance in long cycling cells with carbon-enhanced negative plates a. Examine the mechanism of lead and carbon oxidation and corrosion (incl. highly-stable carbon nanomaterials) in the positive plate of lead-carbon batteries operating at HRPSoC 21

23 b. Conduct a fundamental study and elementary steps of the processes involved in lead sulfate and lead dioxide nucleation and crystal growth at HRPSoC with and without carbon c. Examine the mechanism of capacity loss during PSoC cycling under the conditions of floating, opportunity charging, and hybrid telecom systems and forklift truck cycling d. Study alloys for corrosion resistant grids, metal and corrosion microstructure, e. Develop thin grids for HRPSoC and deep cycling (alloys, power, cost, weight, stress corrosion), f. Optimize design of current paths for higher power and energy density and longer cycle life g. Study and develop additives to the positive active material (conductive fibers, nanostructured active materials, etc.) for longer life 3) Optimize cell design (incl. electrolyte) for better DCA and longer cycle life a. Enhance electrolyte design in the entire cell (distribution, concentration, stratification, organics) b. Examine new additives to the electrolyte for longer cycle life in PSoC operation c. Optimize grid design (carbon grids, multiple tabs, bipolar, low profile, etc.) d. Further optimize the metallurgy of grid alloys e. Study combinations of features for enhanced HRPSoC cycling (optimized carbon and grid design) f. Examine processes limiting calendar life in HEV and energy storage applications, and ways to get 10 or more years of operation g. Examine changes in DCA and in material utilization at different rates of discharge 4) Optimize formation and charge strategy a. Examine the electrochemistry of the formation processes of both plates b. Study charge acceptance processes at high and very high recharge current rate at PSoC cycling c. Examine charge chemistry of both plates, processes forming the relaxation dynamics (transition from non-equilibrium into equilibrium state) in PSoC operation, d. Examine fast charge profiles for batteries with carbon-loaded positive and negative plates that allow for reaching higher energy efficiency in deep discharge HRPSoC cycling than e. Develop mechanism of constant current charge failures after 100% DoD and new charge strategies Summary 2.2 The research goals of the Program are focused on solving the major problems of lead batteries: Further improvement of DCA, performance at high/low temperatures and energy efficiency while suppressing water loss and corrosion, aiming at ensuring lead batteries meet the requirements of OEM car producers of start-stop vehicles and of 12V and 48V micro-hybrids. Increasing the lifetime of batteries for a variety of stationary and portable energy storage systems (ESS) including renewable energy, utilities, grid support, UPS and emergency power. Both HEVs and ESSs have specific technical and economical requirements regarding battery use, which will offer specific challenges to lead battery R&D. According to most forecasts, these emerging markets are expected to rise rapidly and become the major battery market segments in the next one or two decades. If the above research goals are achieved, advanced lead batteries will be able to deliver performance parameters approaching competing battery chemistries (based on nickel, lithium, zinc, sodium, vanadium, etc.). The improved power characteristics, along with full recycling and lowest production costs, can maintain the interest for using lead batteries as the most attractive option for future applications. 22

24 2.3 Consortium Research Funding and Benefits The ALABC program has again demonstrated in the value of an industry-wide cooperative approach to pre-competitive research and demonstration of results. Member companies benefit by gaining access to projects conducted by leading institutions and experts in the most significant battery or application areas. Through these projects, unique knowledge, models, techniques and equipment are available to members without committing to full-time specialist staff or investing in extra capital expenditure for analytical equipment and partnership management. Figure 13. Composition of ALABC financial support in The cost of this type of work is substantially leveraged, not only by cost-sharing amongst the membership, but also by virtue of the contributions made by government and by contractor cost-sharing, as shown in Figure 13. The ALABC projects offer lead producers the possibility of seeing a rapid projection of their market goals in battery development and future technology. Battery manufacturers are able to shorten the time and effort necessary for real life testing of their best prototypes ALABC Program Status 3.1 Introduction Early ALABC work was concentrated on solving positive plate issues in VRLA batteries for deep discharge applications. When the emphasis of the work switched to possible HEV applications, it was found that when the battery was operated at PSoC to allow for rapid charge/discharge events, the failure mode switched to the negative plate because of its progressive sulfation. A solution to this problem was offered by the discovery that the addition of certain types of carbon to the negative plate can inhibit this sulfation process. Researchers at CSIRO in Australia invented the UltraBattery a combination of an asymmetric carbon-based super-capacitor with a lead acid battery in the same container. Its successful laboratory tests encouraged the ALABC to embark on a program of vehicle demonstration by retrofitting existing mild-hevs with lead acid batteries and carbon-enhanced negative plates ( lead-carbon ). 23

25 In 2014, two projects from the previous program comprising longer life cycle tests were completed, both with outstanding performance results: testing according to the IEC standard of storage batteries (OPzV products of BAE, Germany), optimized for photovoltaic (PV) applications; and the real road testing of a Honda Civic Hybrid vehicle in which the original Ni-MH batteries were replaced by leadcarbon ones (UltraBattery of East Penn Manufacturing, USA). The optimized OPzV storage battery performed perfectly for the equivalent of 17.5 years at 20 C and maintained more than 94% of its available capacity. This result is an indication that advanced lead batteries can operate in PV systems almost as long as the system itself (up to 25 years) or be replaced only once. Inexpensive starter batteries used in smaller PV systems had to be replaced several times in the life of the PV system. This is why the new, long life advanced lead acid batteries have the potential to change the existing PV economy models where the use of more expensive Li-ion or NiMH batteries is considered as economically efficient. The lead-carbon battery in the Honda Civic performed as well as or better than the NiMH battery for 150,000 miles, maintaining 88% of its capacity after test. This life span is equivalent to the warranty period of the vehicle (about 10 years), i.e. the lead-carbon battery in a mild-hybrid will not need to be replaced for the warranty period of the powertrain of the car. Such a result has never been observed before and demonstrates to car manufacturers that for the same (high-voltage) hybrid, either a NiMH battery or a lead-carbon battery can be utilized. Section 3.2 provides an overview of the current vehicle demonstration programs. Moving forward, the ALABC work will move to a more basic R&D-based program with limited direct funding involvement in vehicle development. The vehicle test programs have greatly forwarded the case for lead acid batteries in automotive and other PSoC operations. However, at this juncture, further enhancement of lead batteries is believed to be better served in creating new understanding of the materials science of the capacity-bearing and current-collecting materials. 3.2 Demonstration Projects High voltage (over 60V) mild-hybrids retrofitted with carbon-enhanced lead batteries (finalizing a project from a previous program: 2009 through 2014) After the first significant success in 2008 when a Honda Insight retrofitted with a pack of twelve 12V 8Ah UltraBattery modules (produced by Furukawa) ran flawlessly for 100,000 miles in road tests in Millbrook, U.K., a second success was registered in 2014 with a test carried out by Electric Applications Inc. (EAI, formerly Ecotality North America) in the USA through a contract co-funded by the US Department of Energy (US DOE). This project, which featured a Honda Civic HEV utilizing an East Penn Manufacturing UltraBattery system (Figure 14a), demonstrated to the auto industry that the leadcarbon technology is a strong alternative to NiMH in the lower hybrid segment. This vehicle went into service as a legal courier car out of Phoenix, Arizona, where it completed 150,000 miles on the same set of batteries in a period of just over three years experiencing the extremes of heat and cold. In this period, both the car and battery remained well within the operational requirements. The battery performed perfectly: water loss was negligible; the cells didn t need any equalization procedures 24

26 (a unique benefit of the lead-carbon UltraBattery system against all other advanced chemistries); and after 150,000 miles, during which a charge equal to 4,000 times its own capacity had passed through it as charge/discharge pulses, only a 12% reduction of its initial capacity was experienced. The fuel consumption of the retrofitted Honda Civic was equivalent to that of the original one equipped with a NiMH battery pack, which is more expensive and less amenable to recycling into products for remanufacture into batteries. This road test provided a high level of confidence in the ability of the UltraBattery design to function as required by the vehicle under mild-hev operating conditions, offering a substantial cost reduction for the entire vehicle. The test results debunks the myth that lead batteries need to be replaced every other year in hybrid-electric vehicles. However, these results did not assure immediate adoption. Dissemination of the information and partnership with OEM automotive companies could help for launching of advanced and affordable mild hybrids with lead-carbon batteries Low-voltage (below 60V) ALABC hybrids: the LC SuperHybrid Program a) The12V and 48V LCSH projects (2012; and respectively) In 2012, the ALABC partnered with Controlled Power Technologies (CPT) and Provector in the UK, and with AVL Schrick in Germany and Austria, to build the 12V LC SuperHybrid demonstration vehicle a 1.4 liter TSI VW Passat with a start-stop system, a belt-driven integrated starter-generator (B-ISG), an electric supercharger in conjunction with a conventional turbocharger, and a 12V lead-carbon battery (two Exide Orbital 12V 50Ah batteries in parallel). Following the vehicles successful demonstration, a 48V design was developed offering further emission reduction and even more fun to drive. The energy efficiency in it could be further increased and more electric energy-saving options added to the system, so that the CO2 benefit could reach 20% or more. The OEM industry is now looking at 48V batteries to provide enhanced energy recovery and electrical functionality in micro-hevs. According to a 2014 LUX Research forecast, these micro-hybrids will go to market after 2016, and reach 7 million sales in Fig. 14. ALABC demonstration vehicles: a) mild hybrid Honda Civic Hybrid retrofitted with an UltraBattery ; b) the 12V and the 12V/48V LCSH vehicles. Aimed at expanding the successful demonstration of lead-carbon batteries in the best-selling HEV segment, the ALABC has completed the dual voltage (12/48V) LC SuperHybrid. Works were delayed by issues common in leading-edge development, but early testing indicated an approximately 13% improvement over the base car. Recent simulation has suggested that this margin could be improved by 25

27 a further ~5% by recalibration to optimize B-ISG assist during the NEDC testing, and the project was extended to meet this higher target. Final tests are continuing. The LCSH cars have had a very successful demonstration program both in the USA and in Europe. Currently this vehicle uses seven 6V 24Ah Exide Orbital batteries in a 42V pack. This lower voltage is necessary to comply with the German VDA Specification limiting the top voltage to 54V. b) Two OEM projects in Europe the ongoing 48V LCSH extensions As a result of the above described work, advanced lead-carbon batteries are now a major contender in the new market of low-cost hybridization, which can achieve comparable emission reduction and fuel economy without loss of drivability in these more expensive vehicles. Consequently ALABC is currently working on two diesel-based projects with OEMs in Europe. The first is the ADEPT project, launched at the end of 2013 as a spin-off from the HyBoost Project, which is aimed at delivering emission levels of around 70 g/km of CO2. The U.K. Government is supporting 50% of this project, which also involves Ford, CPT, ALABC, Provector, Faurecia and the University of Nottingham, with the integration being carried out by Ricardo. A pull-ahead vehicle has been completed that is aimed at verifying various simulations of the new component parts. Work will be starting soon on the final demonstrator vehicle, which will be based on a brand new model of the Ford Focus scheduled to roll out in the U.K. in May. The pull-ahead vehicle has the same pack as the 48V LC SuperHybrid but the final demonstrator will have a more powerful starter-generator and will use a pack based on new 14V lead-carbon UltraBattery modules. Fig. 15. ALABC program low voltage concept cars with lead-carbon batteries at AABC Europe, January 2015: a) ADEPT Ford Focus (left), b) 12V/48V LCSH Passat 1.4 TSI (center), c) Kia T-hybrid Optima diesel. The second project is one that has been jointly supported by Hyundai, Valeo and the ALABC (launched at the end of 2013), with ALABC funding supplied by additional donations from Consortium member companies. The vehicle integration is being completed by AVL, the contractors in the LC SuperHybrid Program. Two vehicles are being constructed, based on the Kia Optima and the Hyundai i40. Since the 26

28 project started, Hyundai has commissioned an additional vehicle for its own use. The Kia concept vehicle was exhibited at the Paris Motor Show in October 2014 and has subsequently been undergoing completion and calibration work. Results are expected from vehicles belonging to both projects later in the year. In January, the ADEPT and Kia vehicles were both shown at the Advanced Automotive Battery Conference in Mainz, Germany, together with the 48V LC SuperHybrid (Figure 15) Compressed Natural Gas Hybrid Electric Vehicle ( ) The 1315 Natural gas hybrid vehicle (NGHV) project Development of a Compressed Natural Gas Fueled Start Stop Hybrid Light Duty Pick-up Truck with Advanced Lead acid Batteries was co-funded by RSR, East Penn Manufacturing, and two U.S. natural gas companies (Atlanta Gaslight Resources and Southern California Gas Company). These companies are not members of the ALABC but were interested in ALABC work and provided external funding for the project. This project structure is the model for possible future vehicle projects, i.e. by subscription to a unique project not general ALABC funds, but managed by the ALABC. The technical work was conducted by Electric Applications Inc., an ALABC member based in Phoenix, AZ. The goal of the project was to demonstrate the benefits of using of advanced lead acid batteries in highly CO2 efficient inexpensive fleet vehicles for the American market, built easily from off-the-shelf components. Engines converted to CNG release up to 30% less CO2 compared with gasoline because of the chemistry of natural gas, but the car needs more frequent refueling because of the lower energy content of CNG (about 30%). To reduce this drawback a start-stop system can be used, paired with a commercial advanced lead acid battery. A RAM 1500 HFE pickup truck was selected for the project; the first truck in the USA equipped by the manufacturer with a start-stop system (Figure 16). Fig.16.The NGHV truck: left) the converted RAM 1500 HFE, right) testing of the vehicle at INL [19]. The conversion was performed by NatGasCar Company in Cleveland, OH. EAI negotiated inclusion of the vehicle in the US Department of Energy s Advanced Vehicle Testing and Evaluation (AVTE) activity at no charge to the ALABC. This testing activity provides a baseline of vehicle performance that is recognized throughout the world as a comprehensive, independent assessment of advanced fuel vehicle performance and represents a value to the project of well over $100,000. Dynamometer testing was 27

29 performed in the Advanced Powertrain Research Facility of the Argonne National Laboratory (ANL). The fuel economy test was based on the SAEJ1634 methodology comprising various drive cycles (cold and hot start UDDS and HWFET cycles). Dynamometer testing by ANL included five profiles matching various rural or urban driving conditions: with gasoline and with CNG; with and without start-stop. The baseline test results will be published on the U.S. DOE website. The highest fuel savings of 42% were observed when using the start-stop system and CNG according to the NY City Center cycle. In this case, the fuel savings fully covered and exceeded mileage reduction typical for CNG. The converted vehicle will recoup costs in about two years even at modest fleet operation. The truck was displayed in the booth of SoCalGas at the ACT Expo in Long Beach, California, May 5-8, Currently, final tuning and road tests are being conducted. After the testing, the truck could be further used as a mobile start-stop battery test lab The USABC battery test project in the USA (2015) Another demonstration project, Advanced Lead acid Batteries in USABC 12V micro-hybrid electric vehicle tests: performance gap analysis (1315-D5-USABC-BMT-1) is under preparation, and will be funded by participating battery manufacturers, and co-funded by the U.S. DOE. EAI will perform testing and technical work (including battery preparation and disposal) and will work with the DOE through its designated battery testing laboratory, the Idaho National Laboratory (INL), to baseline the world-wide progress made in lead acid and lead-carbon batteries over the past decade. This ALABC program is aimed at developing a performance baseline for lead acid and lead-carbon batteries, and analyzing gaps between these baseline performance characteristics (including end of life values) targeted by the DOE through the U.S. Advanced Battery Consortium (USABC). Another aim of the project is to develop a Technical Roadmap to clearly illustrate the gap in lead acid technology to the requirements of application is thought to be critical to applying R&D resources and efforts to close performance gaps. The performance baseline will be established through testing of current generation lead acid and/or leadcarbon battery products. The opportunity to participate is offered to all ALABC member companies worldwide, and results will be reported to each participating company for its products only, and to the USABC on a blind basis. However, each participating company may elect to release its results to the USABC. Currently, three ALABC member companies have offered a total of five battery types for the project, and three additional members have declared interest in participating, although more batteries are welcome. Summary 3.2 The advanced lead battery HEV demonstration projects of the ALABC have been highly successful. They have shown in real conditions the new level of performance and durability of advanced lead-carbon batteries, and this has been brought to the attention of important car OEMs. These projects have demonstrated that, due to technical non-battery issues and cost considerations, success is only possible when ALABC is supported technically by interested partners and funded by institutions or companies with bigger financial power than the ALABC program. Going forward, the Consortium needs to make the research results available to more interested companies, and build additional partnerships for the purpose of launching new demonstration projects funded by government or local community programs, OEMs, HEV producer companies, prospective member companies or private entities. 28

30 Capacity [%] 3.3 Advanced Battery Research and Development Projects (Finalized projects) Finalized tests of advanced storage batteries ( ) Finding ways to overcome the processes limiting the service life of lead acid batteries in energy storage systems was a focal point of the current ALABC program (attention to this topic will continue in the program). The project SPSoC1 with partners AmerSil, CEA-INES (France) and BAE Batteries (Germany) aimed to create long-life batteries for PV systems, was initiated as part of the Program and executed through Due to unforeseen delays, the project works required more time than planned, especially for cycle life testing. Thanks to the support of BAE GmbH (Germany), cycle tests were successfully completed in The study was focused on the influence of new types of separators, positive plate gauntlets and additives like silica, carbon, phosphoric acid, as well as of optimized pulse charge profiles, on the capacity and cycle life of stationary storage 100Ah OPzS and OPzV cells with tubular positive plates. Cycle life was tested according to the IEC standard for batteries in photovoltaic energy systems (PVES). The best performing cells completed 3150 cycles at 40 C (Fig. 17), the equivalent to over 17 years at room temperature! Ten years ago, cycle life of lead batteries in PV systems did not exceed a few years. 125% 120% 115% 110% 105% 100% 95% 90% 85% 80% 75% test at 40 o C IEC test Type A Type B Type C Type D Total number of cycles 17.5 years at 20 o C 3150 cycles = 8.75 years Fig. 17. Cycle life test results for the best OPzV cells [20]. Considering the life span of a standard PV system is estimated at years, the result can be called One PV System One Battery. No battery replacement will be necessary for the life of the PV system. This is a potential game-changer for lead batteries in renewable energy storage. It was observed that in early and middle cycling stages some of the cells with carbon additives had a bit higher capacity. On further cycling, however, the beneficial effect of carbon disappeared. The gauntlets and the separator played the major role for achieving long cycle life. This effect needs closer attention in future ALABC programs. 29

31 It is worth mentioning that excellent performance of advanced lead batteries in PV applications has also been observed in tests outside the ALABC program. In a PV battery test performed by Sandia National Laboratories, the East Penn UltraBattery unit demonstrated up to eight times longer cycle life than other high-quality AGM batteries. Similar outstanding results have been observed in renewable and hybrid energy systems by Ecoult in Australia Finalized tests of 2V VRLA cells with optimized grid design and carbon additives for Honda Insight (project 1012 KD, successor of ISOLAB, ) This project had the objective of developing small 2V 6Ah VRLA cells capable of substituting for the existing Ni-MH battery in a mild-hybrid (Honda Insight) similar to the successful demonstration of the UltraBattery system in the same type of vehicle. The idea was to combine two simple methods that had shown substantial improvements in a HRPSoC duty cycle in previous work: a dual-tab grid design and adding carbon powder to the negative paste. Three types of carbon were added to the negative active material, and punched grids were used with a Pb-Ca-Sn alloy containing Ag for the positive grids. The carbons were MaxLife from Hammond Expanders, PBX51 from Cabot, and MD23 from EnerG2. The cells showed satisfactory low-rate and high-rate performance. The original plan to test batteries in a Honda Insight was abandoned because of delays in the project and changed perspectives regarding application in a vehicle (the Honda Insight is no longer sold). Instead, it was decided to carry out limited bench testing of modules under laboratory conditions as determined by vehicle trials with the Ni-MH battery. It was also decided to carry out DCA measurements with the cells. The results of simplified HEV cycling showed that in all cases the inclusion of the selected carbons in the negative active material improved the cyclic performance, but the behavior differed between the three materials tested. The bench cycling showed that the module was close to being able to sustain the same duty cycle as the original battery and, if it had been installed in a vehicle, would have had reasonable functionality as an HEV battery. The DCA behavior was excellent in comparison with other cell types. Summary 3.3 The final cycle life test results of projects initiated under previous ALABC Programs regarding the development of advanced lead batteries have demonstrated that the concepts behind the projects were correct, and have provided promising information for future projects. These results have proved that improved lead cells for use in HEVs can be produced. In addition, the use of advanced materials has shown that battery life in photovoltaic systems can be extended up to years a result only previously observed for nickel and lithium batteries. Lead batteries have therefore been shown to be the most economically-efficient power source for PV systems. 3.4 Basic Battery Research Projects ( Program) In the 23-year history of the ALABC as the only international lead acid battery research organization, over 100 ALABC projects have significantly contributed to addressing lead battery issues in modern applications. The premature capacity loss (PCL) effects limiting the performance of the positive plate at deep cycling have been explained and addressed reversible conductivity loss in the grid/pam interface ( PCL-1 ) in addition to irreversible PAM structure degradation ( PCL-2 ). Efficient control of the 30

32 internal oxygen recombination cycle and of charge efficiency was achieved. Another premature capacity loss effect of limiting the performance of the negative plate at HRPSoC cycling by rapid sulfation ( PCL- 3 ) was also explained and addressed by using carbon in the negative plate as the solution. Since 2000, studies on the carbon effect have comprised 18 projects in partnership with 30 companies and over 200 researchers (Projects CN1.1 in , N4.4 and N5.2 in , C1.1/2.1A/B/C, C1.2/C1.2A, C2.2 and C2.3 in , 1012A, 1012G, 1012H, 1012J, 1012L and 1012M in ) Project 1315-SR1-Carbon: a review (by M. Fernandez) In 2014, a small review project (Project 1315-SR1-Carbon, partner M. Fernandez, Spain) reviewed the comprehensive ALABC work on carbon. It offers a summary of the lessons the Consortium has learned about carbon over the last 15 years, as well as suggestions for possible future studies. Another review of the HEV battery testing procedures is at an initial stage, and is under the direction of ALABC partner Don Karner of EAI in the USA Project 1315 STD1 (Narada, China) A study aimed at developing advanced lead-carbon batteries for PSoC energy storage in port cranes and building elevators (powered by the grid or by diesel engines) is in its final stage (Project 1315 STD1, partner Narada Power, China). These batteries will be recharged by the electrical energy generated on lowering of the crane load, and supply peak power energy during container hoisting and transverse traveling, thereby reducing fuel consumption, as well as gas and particulate emissions. In building elevators, the same battery system would reduce overall electrical power needs and avoid power demand spikes (Figure 18). Fig. 18. Project 1315STD1: a) the crane (left), b) the cell (middle), the battery (right) [21]. 31

33 The project comprises a detailed material science study of the influence of carbon additives on the processes taking place at paste mixing, on the structure parameters (phase composition, specific surface area, porosity, density, morphology) of mixed, dried and cured paste, as well as of the effect of added carbon on the formed NAM s electrochemical properties. These studies are followed by testing of batteries with the additives. The first stage of cell testing has been completed, while battery testing is in its final stage. Nine types of carbon were used in the study (including graphite, activated carbon, carbon black, carbon fibers and graphene), grouped in 14 formulations. Much useful technological data about paste preparation and processing was recorded during the process. All recipes, mixing and curing steps, and the formation profiles are described in detail and are available for the membership of the ALABC. In the process of assembling batteries of test cells and of modeling of heat evolution and transport, another set of useful data was collected and recorded. These data will be of interest for battery manufacturers who have to design the thermal management and cooling strategies for larger PSoC energy storage batteries. Fig. 19. Paste technology data collected during the first stage of the study [21]. Additive formulation Fig. 20. Cell performance in a) initial (left) and b) final stages of cycling (right) [21]. 32

34 Life cycle tests confirmed that the targeted number of cycles can be achieved and were a complete success. The success of this project opens new perspectives for battery manufacturers to expand their business in a new, large niche cranes and elevators with potential energy utilization for battery recharge. Testing also revealed additional, unexpected, but very important information. In the initial stages of cycling, the carbon additive formulation had a strong influence on cycling performance. Cell capacity varied substantially (up to twice) depending on the type of the carbon additive (Fig. 19). On further cycling, however, the initially-observed carbon benefits declined, and the cells failed to meet the targeted cycle number. The team at Narada succeeded in identifying the problem and addressing it, producing a second set of cells which all met the target. The results showed that the concentration of the electrolyte has a strong influence on cycle life: at high concentrations, cycle life declines significantly. The best cycle life values were observed in cells using 18-20wt.% solutions. In cells with 35wt.% solution electrolyte, the cycle life was about half as long (Fig 19). They also identified two even stronger parameters. These are: a) the state-of-charge level achieved by the battery before the next set of cycles begins, and b) the charge profile. This work demonstrates an opportunity for design to be controlled by materials and/or electrical charge transport. When a fully-charged battery is (PSoC) cycled, its life drops almost to zero. When the initial SoC is 40%, life increases (linearly with SoC drop) up to 1,800 cycles. The most critical parameter proved to be the overcharge provided by each cycle. Even 4% overcharge was found to shorten cycle life dramatically. At 0% overcharge, the target was met. Narada modified the charge algorithm for the specific battery operation mode in the cranes and solved the problem (described in their last report). The final stage of this project helped the ALABC to identify some hidden processes that are determining the cycle life in PSoC use of lead-carbon batteries even more efficiently than the carbon additives. Gaining full control over these processes is of high importance for the industry. Here, as in PV cycle tests (both at PSoC but not at high current rates), the beneficial effect of carbon observed in the early stages can be outperformed by other processes, thereby reducing the performance of the cell. Further research on these phenomena will be encouraged in a future program Project 1315-R1 (NMMU, South Africa) In another, ongoing basic battery study, a new material science technique, electrochemical atomic force microscopy (EC-AFM) is being used for the first time in ALABC programs for studying the microstructure of negative active material (NAM) with added carbon, along with well-known techniques like X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (Project 1315-R1, partner NMM University, South Africa, supported by Willard Batteries). Two types of additives are being used, activated carbon and carbon nanotubes (CNT, also for the first time in ALABC studies). The team lead by Prof. E. Ferg developed a special setup for EC-AFM studies of smooth lead electrodes and of porous lead acid battery active materials. The EC-AFM method allows simple topographical analyses at the nano-scale, material mapping, estimating of hardness, as well as electrical and magnetic characteristics of the object. This is a unique and totally new possibility for research and theoretical work. 33

35 AFM micrographs of a smooth lead electrode and of NAM are shown in Fig. 20, 21 and 22. The method offers monitoring of sample evolution as a function of time, potential and other parameters at very high resolution. These micrographs will reveal deeper insight into the basic processes forming the microstructure of the NAM in the presence of carbon or CNT additives, and will hopefully be revealing new details of the carbon effect mechanism. AFM micrographs differ from SEM ones and offer additional information about the object. The project is providing a foundation for further studies aimed at revealing the crystal growth mechanisms of lead and lead sulfate. Pb electrode, V (Ag/Ag 2 SO 4 ) Formed NAM with added CNT Fig. 20. Atomic force micrographs of a reduced smooth lead electrode surface, and of formed NAM [22]. 5 m Fig. 21. SEM and EC-AFM micrographs of formed NAM with activated carbon added [22]. 34

36 5 m Fig. 22. SEM and EC-AFM micrographs of formed NAM with carbon nanotubes added [22]. Test cells were charged and discharged for evaluating the influence of carbon on their Peukert, cold cranking and dynamic charge acceptance parameters. A comparison is shown in Fig. 23. no carbon nano carbon activated carbon no carbon nano carbon activated carbon Fig. 23. Dynamic charge acceptance and cold cranking performance of cells with and without carbo [22]. As observed in other studies, carbon additives had a strongly positive effect on charge acceptance. Important new information is that the effect seems to be stronger for CNT. Added carbon also substantially increased the cold cranking current (up to four times). Here, activated carbon had a stronger effect than CNT. The study is approaching its final stage. The need for further developing and using of the AFM technique as a research tool for more basic battery studies is obvious. 35

37 Summary 3.4 The basic research projects in this program were focused on the sulfation-suppressing effect of carbon additives to the NAM. In addition to porosimetry, surface area analyses, X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy, the relatively new method of electrochemical atomic force microscopy was used to characterize the carbons and the active mass samples. The effect of various carbon types (carbon black, graphite, activated carbon, carbon fibers, graphene, and carbon nanotubes) was compared. The results showed that the effect of carbon nanotubes is stronger than that of micro-sized particles. In the same time, carbon additives only are not able to solve the cycle life problem in VRLA batteries cycled at PSoC by medium length (15 s) pulses. A strong influence of the electrolyte concentration, the state of charge and the charge profile was observed, stronger than that of carbon. In these applications, it is necessary to use electrolyte of low concentrations (1.25 g/cm 3 ) and as low as 1.00 charge factors i.e. no overcharge. This information has indicated the need of deeper understanding of the fundamental processes taking place in the negative plate at low SoC cycling. It will help for the future advancement of lead batteries for cranes or other PSoC applications like storage systems, UPS and remote power systems, bringing the performance of lead batteries to the same level as that of alternative battery technologies. More in-depth research projects are required to achieve this goal, and those are envisioned by the ALABC for its program. 36

38 4. Public Affairs & Marketing Over the course of the program, the ALABC s Public Affairs & Marketing (PAM) Committee continued its efforts to support the Consortium in terms of research and demonstration project promotion, information gathering and distribution, and membership recruitment and retention. Under the direction of Chairman Paul Kolisnyk of Teck Metals (elected in 2014 to replace John Likarish of Doe Run), the Committee has become more active in promoting ALABC activity and advanced lead-acid battery technology in general for various growing and emerging markets. 4.1 Event Support and Demonstration Promotion The PAM Committee has provided significant support in promoting the ALABC at industry events and sustaining visibility among both current and prospective members to aid in their recruitment and retention. Often, these efforts have included banner displays, marketing handouts and collaterals, press-releases, electronic communications, and face-to-face discussions, as shown in the Figure 29. The events have ranged from industry forums in which ALABC has had a continued presence (such as the European Lead Battery Conference, the Asian Battery Conference or the BCI Annual Conventions) to events where the industry needs a higher profile (such as the Energy Storage World Forum or the Advanced Automotive Battery Conference). Fig. 24. Examples of ALABC promotion material. For much of the program, the Committee has been active in promoting at some of these events the vehicle concepts generated through the ALABC demonstration projects mentioned earlier in this document (the LC SuperHybrids, the UltraBattery Civic, the NGHV, the ADEPT, the Kia Optima T- Hybrid) as shown in Figure 25. Using many of the tools mentioned above, the Committee was able to leverage the successes of these projects to not only promote the work accomplished by the ALABC and its partners, but also the capabilities of advanced lead batteries in these applications. While the funding mechanism for the promotion of these demonstration projects will change for the program, the PAM Committee will continue to ensure that proper support is provided for the ALABC at events where the Consortium will gain the most exposure and reach the determined audiences for advancement of its strategic objectives. The PAM Committee has also been active in providing additional exposure for these projects through targeted campaigns and various articles in trade media. 37

39 Fig. 25. Promotion of ALABC demonstration vehicles 4.2 Branding Activity On the heels of the branding efforts from the program, the PAM Committee was active in creating new and updating current ALABC marketing materials (examples shown in Figure 31). Many of these materials included new banner stands for event or exhibit displays, a revised tri-fold brochure promoting the ALABC and its successes, new handouts (e.g. for the NGHV and for VRLAs in energy storage), and an updated look for the Keeping Pace newsletter. The Committee also focused on additional features for the ALABC website, both on the public site (new R&D section, new pages for industry contacts) and on the members site (industry reports section, presentation comments function). Fig. 26. Examples of ALABC marketing material. In coordination with ILA s communications functions, the PAM Committee is helping in the combined promotion of ILA and ALABC, which started with a joint ILA/ALABC display at the 14th European Lead Battery Conference (14ELBC) This is shown in Figure 27.The Committee will continue to assist in these and other co-branding initiatives designed to bring both organizations to a wider audience under one entity. 38

40 Fig. 27. Joint ILA/ALABC display at the 14th European Lead Battery Conference (14ELBC). Over the coming years, the PAM Committee will continue to enhance ALABC marketing materials, such as the ALABC website, and seek other opportunities to ensure the Consortium s messages reach the appropriate audiences. 4.3 Energy Storage Activity With all of the recent promotional activity around the ALABC s automotive demonstration programs, the PAM Committee identified a need to bring non-automotive battery producer members to the table and focus on ALABC work and industry advancements in stationary energy storage applications (Figure 28). To do this, an Energy Storage Subcommittee was formed to develop messages and materials to promote ALABC work in stationary energy storage applications as well as to identify appropriate audiences for these messages and materials. The Subcommittee was chartered and organized in 2014 by ESS Chairman Don Karner of Electric Applications Incorporated, and will continue to be the driving force behind PAM Committee promotion of ALABC at energy storage events, in energy storage industry publications, and through other related opportunities. Fig. 28. Non-automotive battery applciaitons. 39

41 4.4 Strategic Planning In 2014, the PAM Committee took a closer look at its practices and devised a more strategic direction for its initiatives moving forward. This was also done to better coordinate its principles and objectives with those of ILA and its communications activities. For the program, the Committee will seek to build upon the strategic initiatives set forth at the end of the previous program, and continue seeking solutions through targeted executive communications, analysis of event support and exhibits, new messaging for the energy storage sector, further enhancements of the ALABC website and other branding initiatives, and greater cooperation and coordination with ILA. 5. Links to Government Initiatives Governments throughout the world, remain committed to reducing pollution, and in the next few years further legislation-driven reductions in CO2 emissions are expected. This large restructuring of the world economy will have a marked impact on the lead acid battery market and the lead industry. These mandated changes by governments around the world are unlikely to change with the short-term fluctuations in the price of oil and gas and may not shift the focus of legislators in this area. The outcomes of ALABC research, in conjunction with the core programs of ILA will be vital to ensuring that lead batteries remain the product of choice for customers, that the lead and lead-battery industry are proportionally regulated, and to ensure the economic and sustainability benefits of lead are well recognized by key stakeholders. United States The ALABC continues efforts to position the lead battery industry as an influential presence in key industries and government entities in the USA. Briefings are taking place with committees of the Congress, the Department of Energy and the Executive Office of the President. Other contact points are industry organizations such as the Electric Power Research Institute, the Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers, the Society of Automotive Engineers and the Progressive Policy Institute. Another key contact is the American Gas Association, which is active in the natural gas vehicle (NGV) industry and with which the ALABC is consulting in the development of natural gas hybrid vehicles. Within recent years, the ALABC worked with the US House Science and Technology Committee to develop the The Advanced Vehicle Technology Act, which reauthorizes the federal government s vehicle technologies program. While the legislation has remained pending, US DOE has incorporated a number of the Act s provisions into its programs aimed at working with a broad spectrum of technologies. This includes broadening work into areas beyond lithium-ion and lead acid has been receiving more attention from US DOE. For example, US DOE last year invited the ALABC to participate in the creation of a new program, a battery testing protocol between the ALABC and the US Advanced Battery Consortium (USABC) that will test 12V advanced lead acid batteries produced by ALABC member companies for use in start-stop vehicles. In addition, the ALABC presently is developing a new basic energy science material research 40

42 program to address a range of fundamental issues affecting the efficient utilization of lead. Preliminary discussions have taken place with US DOE. In 2014, the ALABC broadened its reach into other industries, such as natural gas. ALABC led the creation of a new program to develop and display a natural gas hybrid vehicle (NGHV). Joining with ALABC were Southern California Gas Co., AGL Resources, RSR and East Penn. The vehicle has been on display at several natural gas and battery trade exhibitions. It also has been inspected by senior executives at Fiat Chrysler Automobiles (FCA). The combination of compressed natural gas fuel (CNG) and the ALABC s hybrid technology using advanced lead acid batteries has resulted in the development of a new, clean and affordable vehicle that has received attention from prominent media in both natural gas and battery industries. These developments have been enabled in large part by the positive results of long-term cycling studies from Sandia and Idaho National Laboratories, which have shown that the entirely new ALABCsponsored lead carbon batteries are the best performing and most price-efficient technology not only for mobile applications, but also for utility and renewable energy storage. These batteries and the gamechanging role they will play in future energy storage, however, are still largely unknown to consumers and investors. The policy of the Consortium continues to be focused on promulgating these innovations and looking for partnerships in the government research programs. The ALABC is also being consulted as US DOE prepares a new solicitation for innovative technologies in grid storage. New tools are being implemented, such as the USA Federal policy blog in the ALABC website to inform ALABC members of issues affecting the lead acid battery industry. Recent topics in the blog have included grid storage, energy taxes, Federal R&D budgets, etc. Articles for non-technical readers have been and will continue to be produced. Europe EU legislation sets mandatory emission reduction targets for new cars. This legislation is the cornerstone of the EU's strategy to improve the fuel economy of cars sold on the European market, and requires that new cars registered in the EU do not emit more than an average of 130 g CO2/km by 2015, reducing to a fleet average of 95 g CO2/km by These ambitious targets have already driven innovation in vehicle design and have been the rationale for introducing advanced lead acid battery technology into microhybrids. They continue to represent a significant opportunity for ALABC research. In the EU the vehicle emissions reduction targets are not the only regulatory challenge for vehicle producers. The European End of Life Vehicles Directive (ELV) already bans the use of lead in automotive vehicles. Lead acid batteries currently have an exemption under this Directive, but exemptions are reviewed periodically, and information must be presented at each review to demonstrate the technical superiority of lead acid batteries. As with all lead-related exemptions, the goal is to, if possible, eliminate lead through the use of alternative technologies or reduce the amount used per application. Another possibility is increasing the lifetime of batteries, resulting in reduced fleet battery renewal and thus less lead use. It is important to recognize that the ELV Directive does not give grounds for a lead-use exemption to be based on economic arguments but depends only on the unavoidability of the use of lead. The current and future work conducted by ALABC is therefore critical to ensure that lead battery design 41

43 meets the future needs of vehicle manufactures and offers a superior value proposition to alternative technologies, such that the use of lead in battery systems remains unavoidable. A similar legislative driver exists for the use of lead in the EU Registration, Evaluation, Restriction and Authorization of Chemicals (REACH) Regulation. In 2015 four lead compounds used in battery manufacturing were proposed by the European Chemicals Agency for potential inclusion in the list of substances for which future use would need to be authorized. Without authorization there would be no possibility to manufacture lead batteries in Europe. Authorization will only be granted if the socioeconomic benefits of use outweigh the risk to human health and if there is no suitable alternative substances or technologies. Therefore REACH has some common elements to ELV, but is wider in scope as it would also apply to other battery uses, including stationary and industrial. The outputs of ALABC research will play a significant role in demonstrating continued socio-economic benefits and advantages compared with alternative technologies. In future this will be critical for ensuring a license to manufacture lead batteries in Europe and probably has wider global implications for ensuring that lead batteries maintain their current position as the product of choice for many applications. 42

44 7. Membership forms ALABC PROGRAM MEMBERSHIP COMMITMENT FORM PAGE 1/3 Thank you for your interest in the Advanced Lead Acid Battery Consortium! Please complete the following forms (pages 1-3) regarding ALABC membership for the Program. Completion of these forms confirms commitment to both the ALABC fees and General Operating Procedures (GOP) which are contained within this document. Membership Categories and Annual Fees - ALABC Program BATTERY PRODUCING COMPANIES, BATTERY EQUIPMENT, MATERIAL AND COMPONENT MANUFACTURERS / SUPPLIERS ANNUAL ALABC FEE (according to turnover): Over $1 Billion $100,000 $500 Million to $1 Billion $75,000 $250 Million to $500 Million $50,000 $100 Million to $250 Million $20,000 Up to $100 Million $10, AUTOMOTIVE MANUFACTURING COMPANIES ANNUAL ALABC FEE: $20, ELECTRIC UTILITIES, TELECOMMUNICATION, AND PHOTOVOLTAIC MANUFACTURING COMPANIES ANNUAL ALABC FEE: $10, RESEARCH FACILITY / INSTITUTES ANNUAL ALABC FEE: $5,000 Invoicing will be completed in January of each program year. Payments should be transferred in thirty days after invoicing according to the payment conditions described in the invoice. Please check one box to identify the category to which your company belongs: BATTERY PRODUCER Please provide annual turnover: US$ BATTERY EQUIPMENT, MATERIAL OR COMPONENT MANUFACTURER / PROVIDER Please provide annual turnover: US$ ELECTRIC UTILITY, TELECOMMUNICATION COMPANY, PHOTOVOLTAIC MANUFACTURER AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURER BATTERY RESEARCH / TESTING FACILITY OR ORGANIZATION HEREWITH, I CONFIRM THAT MY COMPANY.COMMITS TO FUND ALABC, AT THE RATE CORRESPONDING TO THE MEMBERSHIP CATEGORY INDICATED ABOVE, FOR EACH OF THE 3 YEARS IN THE PROGRAM. Signature of..representative: /company name/ PLEASE RETURN THIS PAGE TO ALABC 43

45 ALABC PROGRAM Please print MEMBERSHIP COMMITMENT FORM PAGE 2/3 COMPANY NAME: REPRESENTATIVE NAME POSITION HELD: COMPANY ADDRESS: CITY: COUNTRY: TELEPHONE: POSTAL CODE: FAX: C.C. of accounting officer: Signature of.representative /company name/ Date PLEASE RETURN THIS PAGE TO ALABC 44

46 ALABC PROGRAM MEMBERSHIP COMMITMENT FORM PAGE 3/3 All ALABC members are entitled to representation in the General Assembly and on all working groups, such as the Technical Committees and communications advisory work. ALABC will contact these representatives directly regarding future work. (NOTE: The General Assembly shall elect an Executive Committee, which should comprise no less than 6 and no more than 12 officers.) I wish to nominate the following individual for representation in the ALABC General Assembly: REPRESENTATIVE NAME: I wish to nominate the following individual for representation on the ALABC Technical Committee: REPRESENTATIVE NAME I wish to nominate the following individual for representation in future ALABC Communications advisory work: REPRESENTATIVE NAME All members are welcome to propose studies and to participate to ALABC projects. Please indicate in the box below if your company wishes to be involved in projects: MY COMPANY WISHES TO BE CONSIDERED AS A POTENTIAL CONTRACTOR IN THIS ALABC PROGRAM Please return the completed pages 1-3 to Dr. Boris Monahov, ALABC Program Manager by at bmonahov@ilzro.org or by fax at (+1) PLEASE RETURN THIS PAGE TO ALABC 45

47 8. Benefits of ALABC membership All ALABC Consortium members (lead producers, battery manufacturers, material and equipment suppliers, and research institutes) receive regular and immediate access to ALABC research results with expert analysis of the significance of these results. This is through project reports, meetings, workshops, publications and presentations. All material is available via the members section of the ALABC website. In addition: All members have the opportunity to have input into the direction and content of the ALABC pre-competitive research and development program. This includes development of the scope and goals of future projects. All members are able to promote their products within ALABC membership, and participate in the development of the future technical vision for advanced lead batteries. Participating in ALABC studies, meetings and discussions allows companies to participate in cutting-edge projects with the world s leading research institutions. ALABC has an excellent record regarding communication of results at executive, technical and marketing levels, and to a range of relevant stakeholders such as car manufactures and energy storage users. In addition, the new collaboration of ILA and ALABC will result in improved resources to ensure widespread communication of the ALABC s work and the benefits of lead batteries. The work of ALABC contributes to the growth of the lead battery market and therefore the overall lead market. Battery Manufacturers Consortium members will be at the forefront of any technical advances that are likely to have a commercial application in future battery design. This enables battery manufacturers to develop and design batteries with improved performance for current and future automotive, energy storage or other applications. Members who participate in projects directly have a one year period to use the results of the study before the final report becomes published on the Members area of the ALABC website. Contractors obtaining basic fundamental scientific outcomes as a result of their ALABC projects are able to publish (as authors, but acknowledging the financial support of ALABC), if they so wish, their work in well renowned international journals with the permission of ALABC after a quarantine period of up to one year. Technical and IP results are available for use by all ALABC members and are not covered by patents (unless ALABC membership deems patenting is necessary for protecting the interests of the membership). Working with various battery manufacturers can stimulate discussions and exchange of information that can result in improved battery design. Lead producers and material and equipment suppliers Consortium members will receive information about future commercial technical advances in battery design, vital for better understanding of the future demands of the battery industry. Lead producers have the opportunity to work with their customers in the development of new lead alloy compositions. Material and equipment suppliers have the opportunity to work with their current and potential customers 46

48 regarding other aspects of battery design such as new carbons and other materials. Both lead producers and material and equipment suppliers may have the opportunity to provided lead alloys, materials and equipment for ALABC projects, increasing the chance of uptake and use of these alloys and materials in future lead batteries. Research Institutions Research Institutions will be able to suggest and develop research projects alone or in combination with ALABC members, receiving funding and technical input for their work. Through ALABC membership and projects, researchers will be able to develop contacts and links for further studies and research. 9. General Operating Procedures Overview From 2016, it is proposed that ALABC will operate as a collaborative project of ILA. The program will be managed by ILA, with ALABC s core management costs being funded by ILA through subscriptions from lead producers. ALABC s Communications (PAM), whilst remaining an important initiative, will also migrate to ILA to align it with the global communications strategy of ILA. New Committee Structure and Representation ALABC MEMBERSHIP ILA lead-producing members (including integrated battery manufacturers & recyclers) Non-lead producers (battery manufacturers & industry suppliers etc.) ALABC General Assembly (All members represented) ALABC Executive Committee (Elected by GA) Technical Committee (All members represented) 47

49 General Assembly ALABC will be governed by a General Assembly (GA), which will oversee the activities of the Consortium. All ALABC members will be entitled to representation on the GA, i.e. companies directly joining ALABC (e.g. battery producers) plus lead producing members of ILA. Each member of the GA will be allocated votes based upon their membership band (see table below). The banded voting has been devised in relation to the annual ALABC fee of each membership category. Except as noted below under "Approval of Projects and Expenditures", the GA shall act by a majority at a properly called meeting with a quorum of at least one- third (1/3) of the Assembly members present and/or voting by written proxy. GA meetings shall be called by the Chairman of ALABC by written notice to each Committee member ed at least ten (10) days prior to the meeting date. The General Assembly shall, at the start of its first meeting of each three year program, elect a Chairman from the membership. General Assembly Banded Voting: MEMBERSHIP CATEGORIES Battery producers, equipment and component manufacturers, sales : > $1 billion 6 $500 million to $1 billion 5 $250 - $500 million 4 $ million 3 up to $100 million 2 Number of GA Votes Lead Producers:-Annual Lead Production: > 200,000 Tons 6 100,000 Tons to 200,000 Tons 5 50,000 Tons to 100,000 Tons 4 20,000 to 50,000 Tons 3 up to 20,000 Tons 2 Executive Committee Electric utilities, telecommunications companies, and photovoltaic manufacturers Automotive manufacturers 3 Research institutes 1 At the start of each three-year program, the General Assembly shall elect an Executive Committee as the main decision-making body for the Consortium. This will cover decisions on behalf of the GA that are required outside of the scheduled GA meetings. It will also prepare recommendations for consideration by the GA at its meetings. The Committee will comprise no less than 6 and no more than 12 officers from both ILA and non-ila members. Executive Committee officers should approximately reflect the split in funding commitments between lead producers and other members. If after the election this is not the case, the Executive Committee may co-opt additional members from the General Assembly to serve as Executive Committee officers to achieve this balance. 2 48

50 The Executive Committee shall elect an officer to act as Chairman. Executive Committee members will be elected for a term of three years, after which they must resign. They may however seek re-election for a further term along with all other GA members. Working Committees Working Committees may be set up with the approval of the Executive Committee. As a minimum, a Technical Working Committee (the Technical Committee ) will be established to advise on the following subjects: Prioritization of research projects Selection of research contractors Oversight of research projects Coordination of research program Selection of Project Advisory Groups, as required All GA members are entitled to representation on all working groups. At the first meeting of a working group, the members shall elect a chairman. Approval of Projects and Expenditures All proposed projects will be reviewed by the Technical Committee (in which each member has a representative). First, the proposals will be evaluated by the Technical Committee on a scale of 0-20 against each of five criteria: Relevance to defined overall program objectives Level of advance likely from successful achievement of project objectives Probability of success Level of experience and facilities Value for the money The evaluation scored by the received votes will be considered representative for the entire membership. Technical voting time should not exceed 15 days. If the average total score of the proposal exceeds 80 points (max possible is 100), it is considered as acceptable and can be sent for voting to the General Assembly. The GA will vote on final approval by yes or no. Approval voting time should not exceed 15 days. Once a proposal is approved, a contract will be prepared between ILA and the contractor. The contract fixes the duration and cost of the project, the right and obligations of the parties, and the reporting schedule. The contract is signed by the representative of the contractor, and by the managing officer of ILA. Each report (progress or final) will be evaluated by the Technical Committee (or a Project Advisory Group (PAG) if such has been formed) before being approved by the Executive Committee and performing the related payments. When approved the report can be placed in the Members Area of the ALABC website. Each funded program will be subject to providing updates on a six-month basis and a yearly programmatic review to assess whether progress is sufficient to continue funding. Progress reports will be presented at the General Assembly meeting organized in the current year, or in the coming year. Management Support ALABC management and program support services will be provided by ILA. They will form part of ILA s core budget and hence will be funded by lead producers through their subscriptions to ILA. Services to be provided include: A full-time research program manager 49

51 Communications support Administrative support Senior management support Of the total support anticipated, approximately 25% will be dedicated to communications. ILA services do not include Any research project costs, including consulting support (technical or otherwise) Specialist advocacy support Meetings Meetings of the ALABC General Assembly will be held once per year. For the convenience of members, meetings will be scheduled to coincide with major industry meetings. The membership will be informed about the place and date of the meeting at least two months in advance. If necessary, additional meetings will be held. Meetings of the Executive Committee will be held at least twice each year and be supplemented by conference calls as needed. Meetings of the Technical Committee (and its subcommittees) will be held on an as needed basis. Distribution of Technology The ALABC is intended to be an "open" Consortium in that all research results will be immediately available to all members as program reporting from the researchers is available, as well as to non-members after a period of time determined by the Executive Committee. The studies have a pre-competitive character, and the results are available for use to the entire ALABC membership. Those members who carry out the particular project work will have the most immediate access to the results. Technology developed in subscription programs, independent from but managed by the ALABC, will be considered property of the funding members and will remain separate from general ALABC research efforts. Unique technological discoveries may be patented and licensed without consideration to the developer by ILA to Consortium members and to non-members for a fee to be determined by the Executive Committee, and which will include all legal or other costs incurred. It is the intent of the ALABC members ultimately to make the knowledge or technology resulting from the research program available to all in order to advance the growth the lead acid battery industry, which is a principal objective. Consortium members will have the advantages of being involved in the planning of research, as well as having the most immediate access to the results. ALABC may support the development of patented technologies. However, ALABC members must have access to the patents for a preferential fee, which must be agreed upon by ALABC members prior to providing funding, and full access to all information developed with ALABC funding. Amendments The General Operating Procedures may be amended by the ALABC General Assembly from time to time; except that each member shall always have one representative on the General Assembly, and all amendments must be consistent with the Funding Agreements. Budget and Funding To achieve the goals outlined for the program, a minimum research investment is required by industry of $1.5-$2m per year, excluding core ALABC management costs. This may be bolstered by third-party funding from government or research agencies. As a joint venture between the lead and lead battery industries, the aim is to achieve roughly equitable funding from these sectors. Other sectors (e.g. suppliers and universities) will make a smaller contribution. 50

52 10. Conclusions The increasing need for automotive and storage batteries indicates good sales projections for the lead battery industry. Higher battery performance in recent start-stop and micro/mild-hybrid electric vehicles and energy storage systems, growing pressure by the governments for safe products with a low environmental footprint, and steadily improving energy and power of alternative battery chemistries, send a strong message to the lead battery industry: Success is only possible if intensive basic research is conducted, and results are rapidly implemented and demonstrated. Advanced lead batteries are strongly positioned for achieving such success. The previous and current ALABC programs have assisted scientists and engineers in their R&D work, and have successfully demonstrated that the lead battery is a reliable technical partner. The economic savings and the excellent safety and sustainability benefits of lead batteries have proven that they belong to an environmentally-conscious future. Having summarized the success and the research suggestions of the ALABC membership into a new road map for the organization, and with the support of its members now organized into a more efficient structure, we are confident that we will meet our common goals. Reference list [1]. ILZSG 2014 [2]. D. Wilson, Lead Market Volume and Trends, Presentation at ILAB meeting, Durham, NC, Nov , 2014 [3]. BCI National Recycling Rate Study, Smith Bucklin Statistics Group, 2014 [4]. IHS The availability of automotive lead batteries for recycling in the EU, [5]. Christophe Pillot, Avicenne Energy, Lithium-Ion Battery Market Expansion Beyond Consumer and Automotive, AABC Europe, January, 2015 [6]. Chr. Pillot, Avicenne Energy, France, 2013 Advanced Automotive Batt. Conf., Strasbourg, June 2013 [7] Valeo Powertrain Forecast, D. Benchentrite, EEHE meeting, Bamberg, Germany, May [8]. M. Anderman, AAB, The xev Market, 2013 Advanced Automotive Batteries Conference, Strasbourg, June 2013 [9]. A. Cooper, ALABC, Advanced Lead Carbon Batteries in the New Low Voltage Micro-hybrids, 2013 Advanced Automotive Batteries Conference, Strasbourg, June 2013 [10]. B. Monahov, ALABC, Lead-Carbon Batteries for Automotive and Energy Storage Applications, 9-th International Battery Conference LABAT 2014, Albena, Bulgaria, June 2014, [11]. P. Krammer, East Penn Advanced Battery Technologies, AABC, Atlanta, February [12]. J. Abrahamson et al., ArcActive, Lead Acid Negative Electrodes Built around carbon felt current collectors at the scale for hybrid cars, 2013 Advanced Automotive Batteries Conference, Strasbourg, June 2013 [13]. Allan Cooper, EALABC, An Overview of the ALABC s Vehicle Demonstration Programme, Proceedings, ALABC ILAB workshop, November 2014, Durham, USA, 51

53 [14]. Data presented by A. Thielmann, Fraunhofer-ISIR, presentation German Roadmap for Battery Technologies for ESS, AABC, Mainz, January [15]. J. Howes, based on data of S. Ferreira et all, Life Cycle Testing and Evaluation of Energy Storage Devices, SNL report, September 28, 2012, [16]. T. Ellis and B. Monahov, ALABC: a statement of purpose, presentation at the 14ELBC, Edinburgh, UK, September [17] USABC, Development of Advanced High-Performance Batteries for 12V Start Stop Vehicle Applications RFPI, June 01, 2012, p. 10. [18]. E. Karden, Dynamic Charge Acceptance (DCA) Test Method Development for EN , Presentation at the ILAB-E ALABC workshop, Wurzburg, April 16, [19]. ALABC project NGHV (2015), Progress report PR9. [20]. ALABC project SPSoC1 ( ), BAE latest results, B.M. communication. [21]. ALABC project 1315 STD1 ( )5, Progress reports PR1, PR2 and PR3. [22]. L. Bolo and E. Ferg, Effect of Carbon and Carbon Nanotube Additives on the Negative Active Mass Morphology of Lead-Acid Batteries at Partial State of Charge Cycling, presentation at the 14ELBC, Edinburgh, UK, September

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