Hybrid Drive Systems for Vehicles. Drawback with conventional drivetrains
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1 Hybrid Drive Systems for Vehicles L4 Alternative drive train Components Drawback with conventional drivetrains Limited ability to optimize operating point No ability to regenerate braking power 1
2 Solutions Smaller Engine + Reach higher operating points - Still cannot regenerate Store energy in the vehicle mass - Speed variations - Still cannot regenerate Secondary energy storage + Selectable operating point (Pstorage = Pice Proad) + Can regererate - Expensive Smaller Engine cylinder deactivation D IC E Clutch IC E Clutch EM GEAR DIFF Batt PE 2
3 Combustion On Demand Cylinder deactivation via free valve control Optimized efficiency Number of Cylinders in use Torque [Nm] Speed [rad/s] Torque [Nm] Speed [rad/s] Torque [Nm] Speed [rad/s] 3
4 Optimal Efficiency Max efficiency.35 Blue=2-cylinder std, Red=2-cylinder COD ICE Power [W] x 1 4 Secondary Energy Storage selection Why electric? Efficient secondary energy converters (Electrical machines) Safe, quiet, flexible installation Increasing need for Auxilliary electric power High torque density of Electrical Mchines Up to 3 Nm/kg ICE: <2 Nm/kg 4
5 Secondary energy storage Hybridisation IC E EM PE Batt PE EM D DIFF Series D Parallell IC E Clutch EM GEAR DIFF Batt PE Energy Storage Systems Lund University, Sweden 5
6 How does a ery look? Design criteria Cost Vehicle Performance Operation 6
7 Driving the Hybrid by the Atoms ECB Source: Uppsala University Technologies NiMH Lead Li-ion S.C. 7
8 Power Density Limiting Factors Durability NiMH Weight Cost Charge Power Durability Lead Weight Maintenance Li-ion Cost Safety S.C. Energy Initial Cost Performance S.C Li-ion Effpower NiMH Pb- Acid Energy Density 8
9 Power Relation to needs Propulsion Hybrid Mode Propulsion Electric Mode 1 kw 1 kw Cranking Next Generation Need Energy Battery Cell Properties R = f(soc, T,I ) OCV = f(soc, T,I ) + - C = f(soc, T,I ) Losses All parameters are non-linear Strong dependance on SOC, temperature, current rate & direction, and history. No Steady-State Operation! + Terminal Voltage - 9
10 Energy Density Super Capacitor Cell Properties Rohm = f(t, ω) L = f(t, ω) + C = f(u, T, ω) Rleak = f(t) Terminal Voltage Losses - Fewer non-linear elements Strong dependance on SOC & temperature only Semi Steady-State Operation! Combined Energy Storage System Battery Combined System SuperCaps Power Density 1
11 Voltage Driving Criteria Power output/regeneration at a specific time Charge and Discharge Properties Cooling Issues Pure Electric Range Upcoming energy need (GPS, weather and traffic info, etc.) Factors Determined by: State of Function = State of Charge + State of Health State of Charge Li-ion NiMH S.C. 1% State of Charge % 11
12 State of Health Temperature and Temperature Changes Charge and Discharge Properties Pure Electric Range State of Charge 2-5 individual cells in a ery system -- ALL need to be managed Management unit is needed SAFT data Mats Alaküla Mats Alaküla EHS 12
13 SAFT Lithium teknologi Mats Alaküla Mats Alaküla EHS Battery simulation model : 1 P term ( e R i ) i e i R i 2 i P P loss ch arg e e 2 R R P P P term ch arg e term i 2 P loss e 2 R 2 e b a t t P R term P l o s s R b a t t P c h a r g e i b a t t P t e r m 13
14 Efficiency Battery Simulation model : 2 2 Battery charge efficiency Battery power [W].5 1 x 1 5 Super Capacitors : 1 Low voltage -> series connection W 1 2 C 2 C u C C system # units 1 1 C unit 14
15 Supe Capacitors : 2 Size Capacitance Max electric specs Power density Energy density 22 liter / 15 kg 145 Farads 5 V / 6 A 29 W/kg 2.3 Wh/kg Fly wheel energy storage High speed rotating mass W mech 1 2 J 2 wheel 15
16 Electric Motor Drive Systems Lund University, Sweden Torque and Power Torque = Force * radius on the shaft T = F * r Power = Torque*Speed on the shaft P = T * F r but, also Power = Voltage * Current on the electrical terminals P = U * I 16
17 Stator, Rotor and Airgap The stator is static (not moving) The rotor rotates The air gap seperates them Usually < 1 mm Hybrid Topologies Diesel Engine El Ma ch El. mac h D El. mach 17
18 Rotor Rotor Stator Inner or Outer Rotor, Radial or Axial flux Inner rotor Radial flux Outer rotor Radial flux Axial flux Stator Rotor Stator Stator Stator End winding Stator Distributed or Concentrated winding Axially shorter end winding Cheaper assembly Lower torque quality Longer end winding More expensive assembly Higher torque quality 18
19 Length Shear Force & Torque Current and Flux interact for tangential force s = Force/Unit area is a key figure A good design accomplish about s = 1-3 [N/m 2 ] in continuous operation and 2..4 times more in transient operation s Form Factor Low torque density but high acceleration For the same torque, a machine can be either short and wide, or long and slender Assume 25 [N/m 2 ], and a desired torque of 1 Nm, AND that the stator outer radius is.15.5 meter. How long will the machine be to fulfill the torque requirement? The long and slender machine will accelerate faster Torque ~ radius 2 *length Inertia ~ radius 4 *length Acceleration = Torque/Inertia ~ 1/radius Radius High torque density but low acceleration 19
20 Eaton ISAM Short and Wide Concentrated winding PM motor from Hitachi Voith ExSAM Long and slender Induction motor from?? Probably very close to standard industrial good commonality 15 kw 52 motor or input shaft? Siemens 1FHX 2
21 Volvo/Renault/Mack/Nissan ISAM Short and Wide Complex PM Machines Distributed windings 97 N/m 2!!! Some Cars ISAM PM Motor Concentrated windings 21
22 Generic Force Force Current Flux density Lorentz force = current in magnetic field Force Power = Flux density * Current * length (twice) = Force * Speed = Voltage * current Voltage = Force *speed / current = = Flux density * length * speed Linear movement from generic force 22
23 Rotating movement from generic force Conclusions on force and movement The same generic circuit accomplish both linear and rotating movement. One phase is not enough for continuos force Qualitative: Voltage ~ Speed Current ~ Force 23
24 Base speed Max speed [rpm] Field Weakening : I Remember: Voltage ~ flux density * speed Torque ~ flux density * current Power ~ speed*torque = voltage*current The required voltage hits the roof at some speed. What to do, to increase speed beyond? Answer: Reduce flux density Consequences: The voltage requirement is kept constant, as desired The torque capability drops as the flux density. The power is kept constant, since the speed increases in the same rate as the torque drops with increasing speed. Field Weakening : II [Nm] 25 [kw, V] Max voltage and power Field weakening ratio 1:4 Const torque Constant power 24
25 Example from Toshiba Large Torque and High Efficiency Permanent Magnet Reluctance Motor for A Hybrid Truck - Masanori Arata et. Al, EVS-22 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machines Same as the generic machine Voltage and frequency proportional to speed Current proportional to torque High torque density Nm/kg Compare to ICE Nm/kg High efficiency Up to 97% Higher efficiency, higher torque density and more expensive than other machines Due to the permanent magnets. 25
26 The Induction Machine : I Same stator as the PMSM The rotor is a short circuited cage The rotor current must be induced magnetically Losses related to magnetization competes with losses due to torque generation. Robust construction Low cost Low/no maintenance Heavily standardized for industrial applications The Induction Machine : II Voltage and frequency proportional to speed, like PMSM 26
27 Comparison Electric Drives T max [Nm/kg] AC (IM) PM P continuous [kw/kg] Electrical machine losses Several types: Hysteresis losses Copper losses (Ri 2 ) Iron losses (k 1 *f*b 2 + k 2 *(f*b) 2 ) Windage losses (surface speed) Other friction losses Approximately calculated by Eddy current losses [EtaEM,Tem,Wem] = CreateEMmap(Pem_max,wem_max,Tem_max) Electrical machine efficiency Torque [Nm] Speed [rad/s] 8 27
28 The Traction motor efficiency Torque limit Electrical machine efficiency Power limit Torque [Nm] Speed [rad/s] 6 8 Speed limit Power Electronics Needed to condition the ery voltage to the different electrical drives Use switching technology for high efficiency Conventional converters (like loudspeaker amplifiers) efficiency 25-6 % due to continuous control of the voltage. Switching means on/off control of voltage, leading to efficiency above 95 %. 28
29 1 Phase Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) +5 sa va Modulating wave Voltage reference Output voltage Three-phase Converters +Ud/2 id sa va sb vb sc vc -Ud/2 + uab - + ubc - - uca ua ub uc - - vo - Traction motor 29
30 Three-phase Pulse Width Modulation The voltages contain high harmonics that cause: Audible noise Torque ripple EMC problems ua r ef & tri 5 varef tri va va vo v ua u=va-v grundton 5 Hz Power Electronics Efficiency Several types of losses Switching losses Conduction losses v S, i S V DC i S I v S v on t + V DC p S I P cond t on t cond t off t T sw 3
31 Power Electronic Efficiency Mostly depending on the ratio Output voltage DC link voltage Almost constant over wide operating range Can be represented by a constant, e.g
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