МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ РАЗРАБОТКИ И ЗАДАНИЯ. по отраслевому страноведению

Transcription

1 тминистерство ПУТЕЙ СООБЩЕНИЯ СССР МОСКОВСКИЙ ОРДЕНА ЛЕНИНА И ОРДЕНА ТРУДОВОГО КРАСНОГО ЗНАМЕНИ ИНСТИТУТ ИНЖЕНЕРОВ ЖЕЛЕЗНОДОРОЖНОГО ТРАНСПОРТА им. Ф. Э. ДЗЕРЖИНСКОГО Кафедра английского языка Л. Д. ДРОНОВА МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ РАЗРАБОТКИ И ЗАДАНИЯ по отраслевому страноведению «Железные дороги мира» Часть I Москва 1988

2 министерство ПУТЕЙ СООБЩЕНИЯ СССР Московский ордена Ленина и ордена Трудового Красного Знаиеня институт инженеров железнодорожного транспорта им. Ф. Э. Дзержинского Кафедра английского языка Л.Д. Дронова Утверждено редакционно-издательски! советом института МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ РАЗРАБОТКИ И ЗАДАНИЯ ПО ОТРАСЛЕВОМУ СТРАНОВЕДОШЮ "Железные дороги мира Часть I И о с к в а 1988

3 Рецензенты: руководитель студенческого бюро научно- тзуилческого перевода Л.П. Володине; старший преподаватель Н.В. Аяромеем.

4 MllwMf B»ginningg I s z l _ U BEFOHB THE RAILWAYS CAM* For thousands of years there were no improvements in the speed that Ken could travel. Before the invention of the railwaysi the only ways nan could travel on lead were on foot, on horse-hack or in carts, usually pulled by oxen. The Roaan had built a network of straight, paved roads lasted for hundreds of years, hut they were hardly ever repaired. Gradually most of them become overgrown and many of then disappeared. By 1800, harder road surfaces had been built and journeys by stagecoach became much faster. Farcies and :light packets could be sent by coach. For a long tine, the oheapest and easiest way to send heavy goods «as by water. In the eighteenth century, the Duke of Bridgewater cane to the idea of building a manmade waterway, called a canal, from his coal nines of Worsley to Manchester. Bis engineer Janes Brindley planned and built the canal. Canale were vary useful for carrying goods, but they were slow and expensive to build There were many places where it was too hilly to build Oanals. Exercise I, Bead the text and divide it into logical parts, make up a plan of the text. Exercise II. Answer ths following questions. 1. Whet were the ways of carrying heavy goods before ths invention of railways? 2. Whet wee ths main disadvantage of all these kinds of transport? 3. Describe the cheapest and earliest way to send heavy goods used before the invention of railways.

5 Sxerolse III. Rand the following word» and word-ooablna- и я я й м - Ш. them in the tart and я!та 8 i m m q»4y<aag.*«\t improvenent lsproreaenta la speed travel travel on land travel on, foot travel on hors -back, travel In оarte travelling to all the plaoes road network of roade straight roads paved roads road for travelling to last to last for hundreds of years to repair to be hardly svor repaired overgrow to beoone overgrown eurfaoe road aurfaoes hard road earfaoae feat to beooae faster to eead to send by ooaoh to. send parolee and light packets way the way to vend heavy gooda the cheapest end eavloet way to send heavy goods

6 to Send to send by water to come to the idea вал-made man-made waterway to ba useful to be useful for carrying goods to be alow to build to ba expensive to build Kxerciae IV. Out of the above mentioned words and wurd- oomhlnations оотаове ycur own vocabulsnt. of_th* bey words with the trenmcrintion of ths.wordg. Xxerelse V. Kabo up a' tiaann of the text using your own plan and the vocabulary yoa'va oomooeod. *»** 2. TH* BARIiTKST RlILtATS The first railways were used hundred of years ago la coal mines. In those days coal waa brought out of the mines In wooden trucks, pushed by men or pulled by horses. It was hard work moving the heavy trucks over rough ground. People found that horses could pull the heavy trucks much more easily along rails. They laid rails not only in the mines but slong from the mines to ths nearest waterway, where the coal waa loaded onto boats. The earliest railways were made of wood. Sometimes the rails were L-shapod to stop the wheels from slipping off. Sometimes the rails were flat and the wheels had a rim, called a flange, which waa fitted on the inside of the rail. - ^ During the 18th century, people began making better railways. Piret, they laid strips of wood, called

7 sleepers, across the track. The wooden rail* ware nailed to th«sleepers. This stopped the ralxa from moving. When parts of the rails wore out, pieces of Iron ware laid down on top of them. In 1767a an ironmaster, Abraham Darby, started waking rails of oaat Iron. Trucks ran much wore smoothly on these m i l e and horses could pull much heavier loads along them. People started using these rails instead of wooden ones. They triad making several different shaped rails. Some of then thought it would be a good idea to wake truoka with flattopped wheals, so that they eould run on the road as well as on rails. So flanged rails appeared. This kind of railway was oalled a plateway. The first public railway, the Surrey Iron Hallway, used rails like this. It opened in Exercise I. Bead the text and make up a Plan of the text- Exercise II- 4 p y? r tty».ftuwflag.адче.цащ 1) Where did the very first railways appear??) What material was used for the very first rails? 3) What was used on the early railways to prevent wheele frosi slipping off? 4) What Improvements were made on the railways in the 18th oentury? 5) What bonlflts were gsined from making rails of oast iron? 6) Were there any changes in the shape of the rails? What are they? Kierolee ITI. Read the following words and wordoombinatlona. find thsm In the tsxt and give mines Russian equivalents to the». noal mince

8 to bring out of the aine to bring out ooal of ths «in* truck wooden tгибка to aove to вот* trucks over ground to bo pulled by boreea to be pushed by non to pull to pull heavy trucks to pull heavy truoke along rails to load,to load ooal to unload ooal to маке to be aade of wood to stop to stop the wheels froa slipping off shape 1 - shaped rails T - shaped rails rails flat rails rails of oast iron flange flanged wheels flanged rails to nail to be nailed to the sleepers to wear out

9 to lay down to lay down on top of the Valla to run to run wore naoothly -shape different shaped rails wheels flat-topped wheels to run on the road to run on rails plateway a plateway railroad zeroise IT. Ouj afrgyg "»Нйй8й fgyfll 1ДЙ y>ifl- QomMnatlona oom>pse your own vocabulary with the transcription of the words. zeroise T. Mftfrg. M..ft.«ИТОНУ UBtBg j m. J l t * и * л м ш * wtfl,ife> м М т. ш ' и a ra a a irt* A n t m w m f! SrUPPLKMESTjLHY f U f Read the following tezt. divide It into logical Parta tatfl. вяка.т а i& a a &t.ш А п ч Ш ш й П - Oive Russian equivalents to the underlined words and word oowbinations. ABalgiiBE3t,IIJ. Out of the underlined words oomoose your own vooahularr Of the hey words. Make up a summary of the text using your plan and the vocabulary you've composed.

10 THS ORIOIH OP m s RAILWAY A railway is the specially prepared track, dsbignodto aarnr heavy loads with the of guidance wakes it uimeoeaaary for vehicles to he steered. Defined in this way, railways are very much older than most people realise. One of the differences between Oreeke and Romans was that, while the Romans laboured greatly to build roads all over Buropi, the Greeks oharaoterlstioally saw no reason, why they should go to the trouble of forming flat stone surfaces ten feet wide or more when two narrow ruts into the rock would serve Mm purpose. These fdfrmum w*re the ancestors of railways» they presided a J BSS& and relatively ГЧМ ТШ ОТГ*> bined with guidhnoe for the* wheels. Prom remains in various places around the И й Ц ^ И Г Т Д М Я ** ean be seen that their engineering was also quite sophisticated. There Were sidings and passing loops, and the tracks ran wherever possible along contours to preserve a level grade. Rut rutways had the disadvantage that they were lmhoanvtif to W U except where rook Дц. 9йМ, M R S till ЛИС: face of the ground. They therefore remained a loeal phenomenon. like eo many of the other M t * g they were forgotten during the Part Amas. Railways as we know them began with the first stirrings of the Industrial Revolution, in the first mines, where in confined spaces underground heavy weights had to be moved over rough surfaces. Most these railways had waggons with «м м м Д wooden wheels running on wooden rails. They soon extended out of the mine tunnels and down to navigable water# Reshape the largest, and certainly the most historically important, network was in the coalfields round Rewoastle on Tyne (England), Where they were introduced in By the mld- eighteenth century there were over twenty separate lines in this area. -

11 так r a e s n u n п о э т е klohard Trevithick waa the first to think of a stean engine instead of я horss to bs used to pull truoks alone rails* Я м first stsaa angina* had not been built to move. Thouse Vewooaen had invented a stean engine which could punp water out from flooded nines* Later, Janes fatt aade nor* powerful stean engines that were used to work factory naohlnea. Then Trevithick worked out a way to nountan engine on wheels. Meat stean engines of that period of tine worked in s u m or less ths sane wag* They all had a firebox, a boiler, а ohinasy and two oylladera. 1. Я м tender behind the engines carried the coal for the firebox and water for the & Ш Е * 2. A punp fed water fron the tender through a feed nine to the boiler. 3* A flreaen shoveled ooal fron the tender into the firebox. Я М firebox was surrounded by water. Hie fir* heated the water in the boiler. 4* firs tubes ran fron the firebox through the boiler* Hot gasos passed along these tubes. The tubes helped to heat the water nore quickly. S. Я м hot gases and snoke escaped through the ohlnney.. The hot water in the boiler turned to stean. 7* She stean rose into a done above the boiler, and was forced down a pipe. 8. Я м driver oould control the anount of stean with the r a a t e ta g * 9 The stean passed down a Й И i»* the 10. Valves in the cylinders controlied the anount of stean going in and out. 11. An eooantrlo rod helped to open and shut the valves. 12. The stean in the eylinder* pushed the pistons book- wards and forwards. 13. The novenent of the pistons drove the oonneoting rods. This made the driving wheels go round.

12 - II - u. Rzhauet (used up) steam «soaped up a blurt Bine into the chimney. In 1804i Trevithick's first engine pulled tan tens of iron pre and seventy passengers along nearly ten «Lies of railway. William Hedlay built his "Puffing Billy" in Oeorge Stephenson built his first engine, the "Bluoher", in These early engines were used only on private lines at nines. exercise I. Bead the text andanuaerate the U M g r t o l tfte A r i l UPgiftU- Exercise II. Answer the following question» Who was the first to think of a stean engine to be used to pull trucks along rails? Exercise III. Translate items fron 1 to H and try to. give the nost exact Russian terns to the underlined Exercise IV. Oonaose your own vocabulary out of Bxeroise V. Deeoriba first stean engines using the terns at ур.иг T<ml»ai ry. A M l g r c w g L i З Р Р Р Щ И Я Т А С Т TEXT Read the following text, divide it into logical parts and make up a plan of the text. Assignment II give Russian equivalents to the underlined words and word comblnatlone.

13 Qwt fit the underlined word в. Compose your ото vocebularr &*.3hg key W>yai«M v" VP 1 - im,tt "f *Г>* taxt using your Plan and the vocabulary you've composed. STEAM POWER 0Я RAILWAYS Stationary steam engine a had haoa used,mainly to р ц ш р water out of mines. but they all were large and cumbersome. To build a Moving angina It waa neoeeaary to uae 'strong яteam', at high pressure, with oaallar parte. But James Watt who had greatly Improved steam engines had protected hia position by a barricade of patents. But Watt could not monopolise steam power, and several other engineers made progress towards designing a work-. gbls road locomotive In England and abroad, among them frenchman Vloolaa Cugnot (1769)i Watt's pupil William Murdoch (1784). The m at Important was Richard Trevithick. Trevithick, built a steam powered vehicle in Impressed by his machine, Samuel Homfray, an ironmaster, invited Trevithick to build a steam vehicle for use on the new railway whloh served his ironworks. This was a olatewar of 4 2" gauge, nine miles long. Trevithick's locomotive, the first to run on rails, made a journey over it (1804). But it was too heavy for the track and broke quite a number of the cast-iron trauplates. After this voyage the engine was shorn of its wheels and converted into a stationary engine. But the practicability of the idea was proved. Another steam locomotive was built by Trevithick in 1805 at Oateahead. It was still a very primitive machine,there was only one cylinder situated in the boiler barrel. The main reason why Trevithiok's locomotives were not a practical аиссавв beeайве they were too heavy for the track. This explains why, apart from a circular demon- atration line in London in 1008, he made no further progress with the idea.

14 THS FIRST PUBLIC RAILWAYS USING STBAM LOCOMOTIVNS la 1821, a public railway waa planned. George Stephenson waa the engineer for the line, which ran between Stookton and Darlington. The ownera of the line wanted to use horse to pull the truoka. Stephenson persuaded then to uae hia new stean engine, the "Loooaotion", instead. The line opened in It waa the first public atean railway in the world. The Stookton and Darlington Railway used horses as wall aa atean. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway, which opened 5 years later in 1830, was the first railway worked only by atean engines. The directors of the railway held a competition to find the best stean engine to run on the line. Tire engines cane to the trials, but only three of then took part. Baoh engine had to pull a load, fifteen tinea to and fro:4 between two posts a nils apart. The engines were timed and the dlreotors noted down how nuch fuel each one used, how nuoh water each took and how паду tines each one stopped. The "Novelty" nade two runs and then broke down. After eight runs the boiler of the "Sans Pareil" sprang a leak and had to give up. The "Rooket" nade the thirty mile run twice with no difficulty and won the prise. Three months later, the second railway to be worked entirely by oteaa was opened in America. The engine was called-the "Beat Friend of Charleston". By 1833 this line, the South Carolina, was 136 miles long - the longest so for built. Bxercise I. Read the tart and divide it into logical parts, nake u p a plan of the tent.

15 iiercie* ii. 4 в д ж, ш. 1 а и а я 1 м о т м М о м» 1) that traction waa uaed on tha llna batwaaa Stookton and Darlington? 2).that waa tha firat railway worked only by steam? 3) What ooapetltlon waa hold on tha Liverpool and Man- ohoatar railway? 4) What ataan angina won the oonpetltion? Bzaroiaa in. feafl ifet tsumim. tartgjbi дякалй<»ямааtlona. find than la the test and give Buaeiaa ^8 Ibag. railway publio railway engineer to be the engine lor the line truok to pull the truoke to uae horses to pull the trueka to persuade to persuade' anb to do anth. to work to be worked by atean competition to hold a competition to find to find the beat steam engine to run on the.line to hold a oonpetltion to find the beet atean engine trials to coma to the triale load to pull a load to and fro 1p times to and fro to pull a load 15 times to and fro.

16 fuel to ttaa fuel to spring to spring a leak to giro up to giro up the oonpetltion to «in to win tha prlao Sxaroiao IT. Out of tha abort mentioned nerd a and wqrdconblnatlona оотсояа t o u t onnvocabularr with tha tranaorlptioo of tha worda, Bzarolaa T. Мак» u p a mrautry..at. tha tart ualng year plan and tha vocabulary иц'.та зоясома.! o U RA1LWAT3 8 T OAD Aftar the auaooaa of tha Ы т а г pool and Manohaatar Railway in Bnglaad, and tha South Carolina Railroad in America, railways began to aproad everywhere. By 1850 nearly every large town in Britain and Saatarn America had at leaat one railway line. In Britain there waa no plan for a railway network to cover the whole country. Anyone could plan a lino between two tonne, get peralsalon fron Parliament to build it and persuade people to land tkaai money for the line. They thought the railways would make then very rich. But very often the lines were hot built very wiaely. Зошеtinea, two different groups would both build a line.between the ease two towns, where only one line is needed. Sons people did beoone rioh but many more people lost their money. In America, peoplebuilt lines as quickly no possible The government persuaded companies to build railways by promising them strips.of'-land alongside the lines they

17 -16 - built* The first line right across America was built from tha last by tha Onion Pacific and from the Vast by the Central Pacific. The government allowed tha oonpanlaa tc build tha lines until they net one another. Both oonpanlaa wanted to win aa Mich land aa they could, ao they r*oed to..build as much of the line as possible. By spring, 1869, the lines were In sight of one another, Ho seating plaoe had been agreed, laoh company, hoping to win even more land, kept building. The lines ran side by side In opposite directions for over two. hundred miles. In the end the government оhose Promontry Point as a meeting place. This railway was America'e first transcontinental railroad. In Belgium, franco and parts of del-many, the railways were planned by the governments, the governmeis decided how many lines there should be, where they should run end then paid for them to be built. Ballwaya had to be built ее nearly on the level ae possible^ because loooactlve could not climb ateop hills. Ths engineers planned lines with very gradual elopes.they built tunnels or mads cuttings through hills and built high embankments across valleys. If the valleys wore very deep, bridges ef viaducts were built across them instead. Later, when batter locomotives were designed, ths lines oould be built onsteeper slopes. Bzerclse 1. parts, make up e clan of the tent. exorcise и. ЕвааащвJ U f l n a f f l r,! t e wtikt*,liverpool Manchester America, B a e t e m America Bngland Britain Parliament the Bast the Vest the Union Pacific the Central Pacific Belgium Prance Oermany Practise reading the words, give the exact transciption of the words.

18 Bxeroise III. Read the following thm in tha tart and *!» Russian aflbivibntl.ta О Ш to begin to spread to begin to eproad everywhere network railway network to cover to oover the whole country to plan a line to plan a line between two countries permission to get permission to get permission from Parliament to lend money to persuade people to lend them money to persuade companies strips of land strips of land alongside the line to win to win as much land as possible meeting place to choose emth as a meeting pleoe level on the level as nearly on the level aa possible to climb to climb steep hills tunnel to build tunnels cutting to make cuttinge to make cuttings through hills

19 embankment to build high embankments ladueta to build vladuots.slop* eteep slopes on steeper. alopaa Xxerelaa IV. But si tha above mentioned worts andwordш ш agpspgw агоцг л м а Ш у п. я т. Ш trials oription of the worda. Szerolse V. Мок» u p а summary of the text using your B l m of the text and tha vocabulary you'та c l o s e d. AaaiaM MBft I. SUPPLBMEVTARY М В И З Sp.aOtt?,1 Ш А е M Шя. iaglsal JBftt*3. «* b p a plan of the taxt. Aetimea$-Il«Ohooaa key word a and wort-qomhlnatlonaib thft i %. Assignment Щ. Being «и г Plan of tha test and tha H i aorta w d wortoombinationa тои'та ohoean make up a tmmmtt of. the text. OSORUB SftraSHSON George Stepheneon waa born in 1701, in a house whioh atill stands beside tha Wylam railway. By 1013 ha had wor a reputation as a self-taught engineer with a natural genius for machinery but he had never tried his hand at lcoomotives. In that year he was appointed Engineer of the Killingwcrth Railway, and was instructed

20 to design and build oaa. Hia first, tha Blueher, waa teatad in July 1814» It worked wall, and Stephenson later an- giney: ware euooeaeively improved although ha never departed fro* tha Inadequate single-flue holler and they all suffered fron poor вteaming and heavy ooal oonauaption, a ninor disadvantage ao long aa m g l l ooal waa of ao little value that it «aa used to ballast tha traoka* Stephenson's too original contributions aero to replaoe gear by coupling and oonneoting rods, and his atean springs* ind until adequate steal springe were developed in the late 1820a, Stephenson's method «as satisfactory. Seorge Staphenaon vaa appointed Sngineer of the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1821* He brought with him hia eighteen-year-old aon Hobart.0. Staphenaon soapped the apeoifloetlon for e platway end determined on the gauge of 4'8", the a вое ae the (Illingworth line. Already at the back of.hie mind wap tha idea thft oneway railways would join into a national system, and should therefore be uniform. Anally, he persuaded the eonpany to plan for looomotires. So on the alowly descending twenty milee section from Shlldon to Stookton locomotives were to run. It was on this section, 182?, that Stephenson's Locomotion" hauled the first steam train on any publio railway in the world. Kxerolee I. Head the following text, divide it into logioal parts, make top a plan of the text. Bxercise II. Ohooaa Key words and word-ooahlnatlcns in tht.ts&ti Bxeroise III. Being your Plan and the key words end word- combinations your'vs chosen т в к н ж н awamary of the tayt, L0C0H0TXVB TRIALS The famous Rallhill Trials were held on a 1Vf-mile stretch of level track which had been completed by Ootober The company had offtrod a prirs of 500

21 for the beet locomotive. It should be carried on either four or six wheels, should weigh no more than 4 ^ 2 or 6 tons, and should be capable of hauling a load 'of up to twenty tons in proportion to its weight at ten miles an hour. In the event there were only three actual challengers) the "Novelty" (made by Braithwaite and Sricsaon, an Englishman and a Swede), the "Sans Pareil" (made by Timothy Haokworth) and the "Rocket" (by Ш Й Stephenson)» The "Novelty" was a light four-wheeler built on road car principles. It waa fast-enough. But successive breakdowns put her out of the running. The seoond entry was the "Sans Rareil", a reduced fourwheeled version of the Stockton and Darlington engine. But she was overweight, extravagant in fuel, and unlucky. The boiler sprang a leak at a critical moment. The only engine to fulfil the terms of the competition was RBtam* Stephenson a ttooket. On his return in 1827 from three years in South America Stephenson had devoted himself to improving locomotive design, whioh had changed little in a decade or more. He had already introduced springe and abandoned the old vertical cylinders by ths time he had built the locomotive "America". But with the "Rocket" he introduced the fundamental improvement of the multi-tube boiler, and her resulting superior steam-rising and fuel economy.. eighteen months later the Baltimore and Ohio also hold s locomotive competition. Ths weight limit was even stricter than at Rainhlllt no engine was to exceed 3 1/2 tons. But the other conditions of the contest, that each engine should satisfactory complete thirty days in general service, hauling 15 tone at 15 miles an hour, were mors realistic and the prise money ($4000 first, $3$00 second) considerably mors generous. There were 5 competitors, and the winner was the watchmaker Phineas Davis, whose "York" became the prototype of the Baltimore and Ohio s first fleet of locomotives.

22 I s i L i THE HAVVIBS The man who built the railways were called "navvies". Bevvy was short for "navigator. This was what the men who built the canals were called. The railway navvies did the same kind of work as the canal navvies had done. They dug the cuttings, piled up the embankments and out the tunnels. The only tools they used were picks and shovels. Their work was difficult and dangerous. There were no safety rules. The men often had accidents. Tor example, when the Wood head tunnel was built, forty nawlea waro killed and one hundred and forty badly hurt. The navvies had to llv«close to their work. They lived in camps, and moved along the line as it waa built They wars paid high wages for those days. However, elnoe they lived miles from any markets, they had to buy food and drink from a special "truck store" run by the railway company. They were charged very high prices, so they often found that they had very little pay left over at tha end of each month. Ixerclae I. Read the text and make up a plan of the text. Bxeroise II. Answer the following questions< 1) Who was called "navvies"? 2) What is the origin of the word "navvies"? 3) What work did the railway navvies do?. A) Was their work dangerous? Why? 5) What were the conditions of life and work of the navies? Bxeroise III. Read the following words and word-combinations. find them in the text and give Russian short equivalents to them. to be short for smth to be short for "navigator"

23 о anal to build oaaala work kind of work to do tha saae'kiad of work to dtf to dug cuttings embankment to pile up tha embankments to out to out tho tunnala tool tho only toola ploka «hoтаla dangerous rulaa safety rules aooldents to hare aooldanta o n p to live In oaiapa wages high wages to be pall high wages alia to live miles frost smth "truck-stored company railway ootapany

24 pay little pay to have very little pay left Bxeroise IV. Out of the аъота mentioned words and word- ю в М в а П о п» сошооее your own vocabulary with- the transcription of the words. IrtrgAW b Mate- ЧЕ JL. ВЧИМГС St tjht text using your Plan of the text and the vocabulary you've composed. 2a$$_I BRIDQB3 AND TDBBBbS Trains were bigger, longer and heavier than any of the kinds of transport that people had known before. Trains couldn't turn the sharp corners nor go up the steep hills that men and horses and carts could. Nor could the trains fit on the ferries that they used to cross wide rivers. So engineers had to learn how to build bridges strong enough to bear the weight of heavy trains. They were built so that the railway was level all the way aerose the bridge. Many bridges had to be built high enough for tall ships to sail underneath. Sinoe trains could not go up steep slopes, many mountain tracks had to be built in large olrcles. Bach time the train turned a oircle, it crossed over an earlier part of its journey. Bach cicle was higher than the last. In this way, trains could go up even the highest mountains. It took a long time for trains to travel over mountains like this. It was simpler to build tunnels instead. Tunneling was very expensive. It was also very dangerous. Sometimes the rocks crumbled, sometimes the tunnel flooded, and some tunnels collapsed. Bxeroise I. Read the text and divide it into logical parts, make up a plan of the text.

25 KxarolM II. Anewon the following _gue*tion*l 1) What are the prinoipl* difference» of train* fron any other kind* of transportt 2) Why aid it Ъо оом neoessary to build stronger bridges? 3) How did train* go up high Mountain* on th* wary first railway*? 4) Waa tunnelling dangerous? Why? Xxeroise III. Hoad th* fallowing word* and word-ooablna- Цоп*. find the* in th* text and alve Hu««lan eauiralenta to th. big - bigger long- longer heavy - heavier oorner harp oorner* to turn the sharp oorner* hill ateep hill* to go up steep hill* ferrie* to fit on the ferries wide river* tc cross wide river* weight to bear the weight to bear the weight of heavy train* - high high enough to be build high enough

26 to Mil to Mil underneath lopo toop slopes go up steel alopaa oirola to turn a oirola Mountain to go up high Mountain to travel over nountalna to orunhla to flood to eollapae Kxerolae IV. gat AtJfotlfcftTa W* тшммшм.wren iw.два а а Ш ш altft ttv>. tranaoription of tha worda. Bxarolae V. jjftf HR I ИЯШХ.Д -tilt t«1 Ш BlffR t i n» it s! «А. Ш rafirwm m ly o g fm M ji SUPPIiBKHPURY TEXT Assignment I.Band tha following taut, divide It into la ic a l мг*,и., лщк>.яя.а»1м af Ш t»it>, Aaaignaant II. Choose key wordd and word-ooablnatlona la Aaalgnaent III. Цц±м JQ.MT. Elga. Kfl УГСЙЙЕ Sflft. m f c. a f f l m w y i M u. m ' K a t o m «ft* w ft m m i 91, *fet t«tr TUVnLLINO By 1870 englneera had built up an armoury of techniques for driving railways through mountains- The first step waa to decide on the steepest gradient to be allowed

27 By this time 1 in 50 (2#) or 1 in 40 (2 1/296) was acceptable aa an extraordinary maximum! where the traffio waa less heavy, 1 in 30 ( or even 1 in 25 (4*) could be admitted. So long aa the average inclination of the vallqf to be followed'did not exceed the figure deoided on, there were no major difficulties. But when the valley beoame steeper than the railway, construction grew more oomplloated. It was then neoessary to increase the length of the line so that the extra height oould be gained without exceeding the limiting gradient. Sometimes the line oould be carried up a side-valley, make a horseshoe curve at the end, and return at a higher level. These sig-cags were never used in Buropei they were an American speciality. But examples are still to be found in Burma, India, and most famous of all, in the Andes. So engineers had to tunnel, and since mountains are always rocky, tunnelling was always expensive. During the nineteenth century, for financial reasons American engineers were even more anxious than European to avoid tunnels of any length. Later, the railway might be improved and a tunnel built. An interesting example was the crossing of the Cascade Range by the Great lor t h e m Railway. To avoid waiting until the tunnel was completed (it took seven years to build), a temporary railway 12 miles long was built over the pass W rth no fewer than eight stations.this was abandoned in 1900 with the opening of the first Cascade Tunnel. But the line was still expensive to work, end finally it was decided to build a completely new tunnel. This, the second Cascade Tunnel, is 7 V d miles long and wee opened finally in 1929, shortening the previous route by nine miles. The first really substantial mountain railways were in Europe. Tho earliest Alpine tunnel, was the Rranco-Italian Mont Cenws or Trsjus, 8 miles long, which took 13 years to build < ). But the first classic transalpine main line wae the Qotthrd. The tunnel itself had been a heroic achievemect, as ventilation was extremely bad.

28 177 men lost their lives in accidents, and the engineer, 11. Lois Favre, died of heart attack during a tour of inspection. While on the subject of tunnels, one might well mention a project, whose difficulties, are not technical but wholy political, and on which the work stopped 80 years ago - the Channel Tunnel. I s s U GAUGE The distance between two rails on a railway is oalled its gauge. In Ingland and most European countries, the gauge is 1.4 m (4ft 8 g ins). Most early wagonways and railways had tracks spaced to this gauge. Stephenson made his first experiments with steam engines at Killings worth ooal mine. The gauge of the o.oal truok rails, was 1.4 m (4ft 8 g ins). When Stephenson made his first engine, the Blueher, he had to build it to fit those rails. The engine worked well, so Stephenson did not think of trying to build railways or engines with another else gauge. Other opinions were that trains would run faster and more safely on rails with a broader gauge. When Brunei designed the Great Western Railway he built the track with a 2.1 m (7 ft) gauge. The Eastern Countries Railway was built with a 1.5 (5ft) gauge. At first none of the railways joined up with ons another, eo it did not matter that they all used difl gauges. But gradually, companies using different (. _ building lines to the same towns. This meant that people and goods had to change from one line to another to oon- t i m e journeys. In 1845, a Royal Commission on Gauges decided that there would be one gauge in the country. Stephenson's gauge of 1.4m (4 ft 8 ins) was chosen as the standard gauge. The Great Western Railway laid a third rail on all its tracks, so that narrow gauge and broad gauge

29 train* oould both uao tho linea. lxoroioo X. Road tho text and divide it lntolnaloal narta. make up a plan of tha text. f Rxoroioo II. Ш п т М л. M U f l M «1 Ш И 1 1) that la oallod a gauge? 2) that ia th* gang* la Ragland and other Ruropoan oeuntrioat 3) thy waa th* gaug* of * ft 8 In* ohoa*n aa a standard gauge? 4) that were other opinion* aa to th* width of th* gauge? 5) thy ia It Important to haw* th* *aam ala* gauge everywhere? Rxereia* III. Regd 1Hf fauftwl?» jaia, ЩВ&. ПХ&гМЛЪУЮс. Н а м. M k -Ib,tht jiwft й х а м и й м «m j t r t i t i,1a.lta «n dletanoe diatano* between two rail* wagonwaya moat early wagonwaya gauge to apace to th* gaugf ala* gaug* to uae different g*4p narrow gauge broad gauge standard gauge rail coal truck rails to fit to fit the rails

30 to run to run faster to run nor* safely to Join to join up with one another to ohange to ohange fron one line to another to ohooee to ohooee aa the standard gauge rail to lay a (third) rail Bxeroise IV. Out of the above nentloned words and wordа а Ш э д Ш м, а а я м и м т ата. w i t t o.r i f t the transcription of the words. Bxeroise V, ggfcf ну a ffp агу»* the teyt ufing four plan of the tent and ths ooahulary you ve oonoosed. Aaittammt I Bari.,..fta, fr i l a r t n e w. hp.,.b,.е 1м 1.а 1 -.Ш 1 Ш». aupfuanxtarx t b i t j w t j u AHfligffltfn*. HI,«о fitojsi S f z j w U «4 1д Ша Д я й г АявАр ш т А Ш Using у о в г plan and the Key words end word fipwhinatloaa you've chosen make u p a summary of the text.

31 RAILWAY GAUGE Railways war* not quite the sane kinds in.different countries. The first difference was due to the reopening of the gauge question in the aid-sixties. This tine instead of arguing the advantages of using a width greater than 4' 8 j", engineers were now often in favour of something narrower. The great advantage of a narrow gauge railway was that it was very much cheaper to build. It oould turn sharper curves, thus lessening the need for earth works, whioh were in any case less expensive because they were less wide. The trains themselves were also smaller and therefore cheaper. The only remaining question was whether a narrow-gauge line could be made to do a useful amount of work, and until the 1860s this seemed doubtful. The first commercially successful narrow gaug# line of any length was the Testjniog, a 1Э-mile horse-worked twofoot gauge railway in Horth Vales. Here conditions were as unfavourable as they could bet the gauge was admitted to be too narrow for long-distanoe work. Engineers soon realised that a railway slightly broader but still much cheaper to build, could deal with any kind of traffic. Tor long distance work a width about 50 per oent greater than Teetiniog's would be perfectly adequate; and so lines of three feet metre, or 3'6" gauge were built. Vo more broad-gauge colonies appeared anywhere after mid-sixties. Only a few countries, notably China and Tarsia, chose even 4' 8 у v as a standard after 1870; in all the rest of Asia and almost the whole of Africa and Australia a gauge of one metre or Э'б" became universal. In America the three-foot gauge was adopted with great enthusiasm and by 1900 some miles of it had been built. 1 st, although the narrow gauge led, the standard gauge, followed. It might cost a little more in the first place, but as always there were advantages in spending money at the right time. The main one was that the gauge was 'standard'. The American narrow-gauge boom came to an end in due course.

32 2 s L 2 t h s т и г т ю * os b r a c t s Aa engine* wrnrm able to pull heavier and faator train* it Ь м м м increasingly lnportant to fit brake* capable оf topping than. Sine* load* w*r* heaviest in America, It was not aurprielng that the Americana led th* way. In 1833, Robert Stephenaon had patented a steam broke,acting quickly and powerfully on th* wheel* of the loeomotiva, but condensation prevented it being uaed on the train and for the next fifty yeara carriage and wagon brakes had to be worked by hand. Passenger trains in Europe had brake vena through! their length, each manned by a guardi in America every ooaoh had brakes, applied by brakesmen moving from car to car. Similarly American freight train* had brakesmen walking along the roof. In Europe men aat in hutohea (m/iitku) on certain wagona, and in Bngland the yatem called for trains to atop at the top* of hills while a proportion of the wagon brakes were pinned down. If a train failed to stop at th* top of the hill, it would assuredly fail to atop at the bottom. Hand-brakes were too alow to be of any use in an emergency, and engineers turned their attentions to devising a brake which could be applied instantly by the engine- driver to every wheel of the train. Tha obvious step was to do this directly by compressed air, and an effective straight-airbrake began to be used by American passenger trains in It had tha drawback that if the train broke in two the pipe was also broken in two, and the brake became useless when it was most needed. What was wanted was a system where the brake waa applied by air pressure returning to normal! and George Wastinghouse produoad cat In oon the Weatf^house brake became universal on.both passenger and freight trains, most of ths countries followed eult, but not Britain) or at least not muoh of it. A Mr, Smith was working on a British Ъгакэ which, instead of compressed air, used a vaouum. In 1873 some

33 comparative trials war* held at Hewwork. The result was a little oonfusing) the Weetlnghouee trairih brakes all ease on sevsrsl aeoonde quloker than Smi^Ri'*, but-the vacuum train stopped first. Certain oompanlea decided that ainee the function of a brake waa to atop a train, this proved the superiority of the vaouum system* It was only minority who realised that Smith had happened to uae lager brake oyllndera. A majority of Sncliah railways ehoie the vacuus brake, ao did one or two other countries* Tima baa proved that this waa a bad mistake* txerolse I. Read the text and divide It into logical parte, mate u p a clan of the tent* Sxereise II. Answer the followlne questions. 1). What were the earliest systems of braking in kurope and in America? 2) What waa the main drawback of the handbrakes? 3) Describe the Invention of Oeorge Waetfghouso. A) What waa the principle of operating Hr. Smith's brakes? 9) What wars the results of tho brakes trials? S) Row can you explain the suocesa of Smith'a brakes? Bxeroise III. Read tha following word and word-combinations find them in ths text end give Russian equivalents to them. to pull to pull heavier and faster trains to patent to patent a steam brake condensation by hand to bo worked by hand guard to be manned by a guard

34 brakesman to ba applied by brakesman to atop to atop at tba topa of hills to fail to atop brakes hand-brakes brake cylinders to uee larger brake oylindera emergency in aa emergency to be of use In an emergenoy iaatantly to be applied iaatantly to be applied iaatantly to етегу «heal of the train air compressed air straight air brakes air pressure to ba applied by air preaaura to return to return to nomal universal to beoome unlveraal vaouum to uae vacuum trial oonparatire trial to hold comparative trials auperorlty to prove the eupnriority to prove the superiority of the vaouum system

35 Bxerola* IV. Out of the above mentioned words fff1 coablnatloba ооврове tout own voeahularv with the transcription of tha word». Saeroise V. Malta up a summary of the text unlmt гонг,ои plan of the tart and the vooahularv vou'va oowpoaed. Aaalgnaant I toolc through the texts and ooapoee your own vcoabulagt of tho railway ttnaa with the AtinaorlPtAoa yorde. жхте Russian equivalent» _tq the terse. Ш Ш в ю й Л Oalcut rour vocabulary of tho «A lta r tetpp and the Jcyy woida ape «Ос on the following topical 1. The Origin of the Rellway. 2. The first Steau tosoaotlve 3. The Construction of the VIret Railwayв, Railway Tunnele and Bridges. 4. Railway Gauge. 5. The Invention of Brakes.

36 X. Before the rallwaya oeae 2. The eerxieet railway* 3. The origin of the railway 4. She ftret eteea engine* 9, Ste*» power on railway* I. The firet pubxie rallwaya ueiag eteea locoaetlve* 7. Hallway* epreed B. Oeorge Stephenaon 9. Xoeoaotlv* trial* 10. The Havvie* II. Bridge* end tunnel* 12. Tunnelling 13. Gauge* 14. Hallway Oaug*. 15. The Invention of фгаке*

37 Людаила Дкитриевна Дронова МВГОдаЧЕСКИЕ РАЗРАБОТКИ И ЗАДАШЯ по отраслевому страноведению "Железные дороги мире Честь I Технический редактор Корректор М.Б. Остапович И.М. Шестова