Biofuel Standards in Lao PDR

Transcription

1 Biofuel Standards in Lao PDR BIOFUELS ASSESSMENT AND DEVELOPMENT PLAN PREPARATION FOR LAO PDR December 2013 Document prepared by Emergent Ventures International in partnership with 1

2 Recommended Biofuel Standards for Lao PDR BIOFUELS ASSESSMENT AND DEVELOPMENT PLAN PREPARATION FOR LAO PDR Energy and Environment Partnership Programme with the Mekong Region December 2013 i

3 Table of Contents LIST OF EXHIBITS... iii ABBREVIATIONS... iv Introduction... 1 Petroleum Fuel Standards... 1 Standards for Gasoline and Diesel... 1 Biofuel Standards... 2 Biodiesel Standards... 2 Bioethanol or Ethyl Alcohol Standards... 5 Standards for Biodiesel and Bioethanol blends... 7 Biodiesel Blend Standards... 7 Ethanol Gasoline Blend Standards... 8 Blending Arrangements for Lao PDR... 9 Biofuel Analyser... 9 Action Plan for Blending for Lao PDR Biofuel Supply Chain Compatibility Considerations Biofuel Compatibility Issues Measures to deal with the biofuel compatibility issues Appendix... I References... II ii

4 LIST OF EXHIBITS List of Tables Table 1: Standards for Gasoline and Diesel... 2 Table 2: Specifications of Diesel and Biodiesel Fuels (Tyson, et al., 2006)... 3 Table 3: Guidelines for B100 blend used for blending at levels upto B Table 4: Performance requirement (Denatured Fuel Ethanol)... 6 Table 5: Specification for Biodiesel Blends B6-B20, ASTM A... 8 Table 6: Biofuel Compatibility Issues Table 7: Measures to deal with the biofuel compatibility issues iii

5 ABBREVIATIONS B-10 Biodiesel 10% blended fuel B % pure biodiesel B-5 Biodiesel 5% blended fuel BRBL Biofuels Regulatory Board of Lao PDR DSM Department of Standardization and Metrology E % pure ethanol EU European Union FAME Fatty Acid Methyl Esters IREP Institute of Renewable Energy Promotion NBB National Biodiesel Board RFS Renewable Fuel Standards USA United States of America v/v Volume (of Ethyl alcohol) by Volume (of gasoline) iv

6 This report sets the guidelines for developing the biofuel standards in Lao PDR. The purpose of this report is to advise the Governments of Lao PDR in attaining the national target of 10% bio-fuel blending for transport sector. The report attempts to identify the dire need to have biofuel standards for the country in addition to the petroleum fuel standards. Therefore, biofuel should not only have standards but these standards should be compatible with the prevailing petroleum fuel standards. For biodiesel, initially standard with ASTM D4791 specifications and for ethanol ASTM D4806 specification is recommended. These standards are reasonably simple and easy to comply with, yet give a fair quality of product over a period of time, overtime this standard will need to be further refined. In a biofuel supply chain, blending being a critical element, recommendation for maintaining consistency in blended fuel is described. For blending purpose, splash blending is suggested during initial phase due to its very low operational costs and in-line blending option can be employed as the biofuel volumes increase. Finally as a word of caution, the biofuel compatibility issues associated with biofuel are mentioned in the report. The report concludes by providing measure which could assist in dealing with issues related to compatibility of biofuel at biofuels storage distribution, retailing points and is use in the vehicles. INTRODUCTION Biofuels can help the Laos economy protect itself from price shocks and reduce overdependence on petroleum fuel. If the country plans for a nationwide biofuel policy, irrespective of the scale and scope of the program, it will be required to have two sets of standards one for the petroleum fuels and the second for biofuels (pure as well as blended fuels). The biofuel and blended fuel standards will have to be compatible with the prevailing petroleum fuel standards. In addition, the standards will have to be dynamic and evolve with time to match with the engine technology and environmental quality concerns of the country. For a nation like Lao PDR, which is at the juncture of introducing biofuel, great care has to be taken in not creating standards which are too stringent to begin with, and do not hamper the initiation and continuous growth of the biofuel industry. In Lao PDR, almost all vehicles today are imported and are not substantially different from the modern day technological genre. This scenario therefore demands a careful amalgamation of technical necessities and emerging biofuel industry. The biofuel quality also has to be compatible with the prevailing petroleum fuel standards at any point of time. This necessarily puts the onus on the biofuel manufacturer to produce products of a standard that will continuously match the ever increasing demands of fuel standards. PETROLEUM FUEL STANDARDS Standards for Gasoline and Diesel The petroleum fuel standards in the country (for diesel and gasoline) are no match to the fuel quality standards in the South Asian region and other developing and developed nation. A revision in the fuel standard in the country is expected in , but the details and direction of such revision is not yet known. Considering the existing fuel standards as baseline, a basic standard is prescribed for Lao PDR. It is suggested 1 Source: Discussions with Deputy Director of Quality Centre, Department of Standardization and Metrology (DSM), Ministry of Science and Technology 1

7 that with periodic progression the petroleum fuel standards in the country should be upgraded to match the best of international fuel standards in coming decades. A gradual, transparent mechanism to introduce advance fuel standards in the country will help all the petroleum fuel and biofuel sector players to align and periodically adjust their planning and operations to match with the long term fuel standard approach. Entities involved in petroleum fuel procurement, processing and retailing as well as the vehicle manufacturers will be benefit from the clearly spelled fuel standard approach. Developing a detailed petroleum fuel standard for the country is not the scope of this study. Hence an indicative petroleum fuel standard is recommended for the country and a timeline for introducing standards and gradually advancing them is suggested in Table 1 below: Table 1: Standards for Gasoline and Diesel Year Standards for Gasoline and Diesel Fuel 2015 World Wide Fuel Charter Category 1 or equivalent 2020 World Wide Fuel Charter Category 2 or equivalent 2025 World Wide Fuel Charter Category 3 or equivalent 2030 World Wide Fuel Charter Category 4 or equivalent The introduction of these standards will help regulate the import of all gasoline and diesel fuel in the country. BIOFUEL STANDARDS Biofuels have to be compatible with the petroleum fuels with which they are to be blended. Therefore, it is necessary to introduce biofuel standards in the country that make these fuel compatible with the prevailing petroleum fuel standards. While developing biofuel standards, attention has to be paid to the feedstock from which biofuel is derived. This is particularly true for the biodiesel. The biodiesel fuel properties depend upon the characteristics of the feed material and also biodiesel derived from same plant species may vary depending on the agro-climatic conditions of the region. For this reason, United States (USA) and European Union (EU) have two different sets of specifications for biodiesel, also the USA biodiesel does not satisfy EU specification requirements and vice versa. In most cases the test specified in different specifications are also different. Bioethanol, irrespective of the crop/feedstock from which it is derived, does not vary in chemical properties. This is due to the fact that bioethanol is a single molecule product, and minor variations in physical properties may come from the process adopted for its manufacturing and the post process purification/refining treatment subjected to it. Biodiesel Standards Biodiesel is a vegetable oil or animal fat based fuel consisting of long chain of mono-alkyl esters. Biodiesel can be used alone (B-100) or blended with diesel fuel in any proportion (e.g., B-5, B-10 etc.). Since the fuel is quite similar in its properties with petroleum diesel, it can be used for other applications as well. Typical properties of biodiesel fuel (of standard ASTM D 6751) and its comparison with diesel fuel (of standard ASTM D 975) is provided in Table 2. 2

8 Table 2: Specifications of Diesel and Biodiesel Fuels (Tyson, et al., 2006) Fuel Property Diesel Biodiesel Fuel standard ASTM D 975 ASTM D 6751 Lower heating value, Btu/gal Kinematic 40 C Specific gravity, 60 F Density, 15 C Water and sediment, vol % 0.05 max 0.05 max Carbon, wt % Hydrogen, wt % Oxygen, by dif. wt % 0 11 Sulphur, wt % 0.05 max Boiling point, C Flash point, C Cloud point, C -15 to 5-3 to 12 Pour point, C -35 to to 10 Cetane number Lubricity SLBOCLE, g >7000 Lubricity HFRR, μm <300 As apparent from Table 2, while biodiesel have several advantages, it has a higher viscosity, higher specific gravity, higher density, high cloud point and high pour point then petroleum diesel (Yoon, et al., 2008). These properties have an influence on the fuel spray atomization and evaporation characteristics in a biodiesel engine, resulting in changes in the combustion process 2. It is most likely that initially biodiesel may be produced in Lao PDR from: palm oil and Vernicia Montana (Makkau). Gradually, other crops may also be available, such as soybean. Later, newer feed material may be identified and used. The biodiesel made from palm oil, makkau (Vernicia Montana) will have different physical and chemical characteristics. In view of this, it is recommended that the biofuel of specifications ASTM D4791 may first be introduced in the country. This standard is simple and easy to comply with, this basic standard can be adopted for a short period of 4-6 years or before (if stringent petroleum fuel standards are introduced). As the biofuel program in the country expands, the biodiesel standard can be further refined. The aspects that need to be strengthened overtime include high standards for Oxidation stability and Contaminants. Vegetable oils have differing composition and varying molecular structure, depending on the biofuel feedstock from where it is sourced. Consequently, the characteristics and properties of the biofuel produced will also be different. As an example, the Cetane Number of biodiesel made in the USA from soybean is 45 and that made from rapeseed oil in Europe is 51. Therefore, two different biodiesel specification came up, the ASTM D4791 in the USA, and EN14214 in Europe. Over the years, there have been several updates of these specifications, sometimes even two times in a year. It is strongly suggested that for all initial manufacturing of biodiesel, ASTM D4791 be specified immediately, no later than The adoption of the standard will allow all biodiesel manufacturers to select and introduce the processes to be employed in their plants to meet the minimum quality standard in advance. Manufacturers who may aim for higher standards to begin with are likely to be benefitted by market dynamics. Taking cue from the more advanced specifications, (ASTM D4791 and EN14214), the indication on 2 Some of the very positive effects of biodiesel are in engine emissions. Measurable HC emissions are generally dominated while CO is reduced by almost 40%. There is a significant reduction in amount of soot in exhaust and therefore in smoke density. 3

9 biodiesel standards to be adopted in future may also be communicated to the industry so that the technology and process transition can be planned by the investors and stakeholders well in advance. This standard needs to be reviewed periodically and depending upon the circumstances, may be reaffirmed or revised. The first such review must take place by the year 2020 or before, and then by the year Another possibility is the use of the biodiesel confirming to the guidelines given by the worldwide fuel charter guidelines for B-100 blend stock, although it is recommended for use upto B-5 at present. This is likely to go up. The fuel characteristics of this biodiesel are given in Table 3. Most importantly, the final selection of the initial specification of biodiesel, B-100, for use in Lao PDR may be done in consultation with stakeholders, particularly the current and possible future manufacturers. Table 3: Guidelines for B100 blend used for blending at levels upto B-5 Ester content Property Value Units 96.5 min % m/m EN mod Linolenic Acid Methyl Ester 12.0 max % m/m Polyunsaturated acid methyl ester ( 4 double bonds) 1 max % m/m Oxidation Stability: Induction Period 10 min hr Iodine Number 130 max 3 g I2/100 g Total Acid Number 0.5 max mg KOH/g ISO 6618 ASTM D664, D974 JIS K2501 Methanol 0.20 max % m/m EN JIS K2536 Glycerides Mono glyceride 0.80 max % m/m EN ASTM D6584 Di glyceride 0.20 max % m/m EN ASTM D6584 Tri glyceride 0.20 max % m/m EN ASTM D6584 Glycerin (glycerol) Free glycerin 0.02 max % m/m EN 14105/14106 ASTM D6584 Total glycerin 0.25 max % m/m EN ASTM D6584 Density report g/ml EN ISO 3675 ASTM D4052 JIS K2249 Other: EN ISO 12185, Kinematic Viscosity@40 C mm2/s EN ISO This limit may unnecessarily preclude certain feedstocks. Some engine technologies may need a more stringent limit. 4 For temperatures at/ below 20 C, viscosity should be at or below 48 mm 2 /s to avoid potentially dangerous loads on the fuel injection pump drive system. 4

10 Property Value Units ASTMD445 JIS K2283 Flash Point 100 min C ISO 3679 Cetane Number 51 min ISO 5165 ASTM D613 Water 500 max mg/kg (ppm) Water and Sediment 0.05 max % v/v Total Contamination 24 max mg/kg EN Ash Content max % m/m ISO 6245 ASTM D482 Sulfated Ash max % m/m ISO 3987 ASTM D874 Carbon Residue: Ramsbottom, on 100% 0.05 max % m/m distillation residue Corrosion: Ferrous light rusting, max Rating Sulphur 10 max ppm EN 20846/20884 ASTM D5453/D2622 Phosphorus 4 max mg/kg EN Alkali metals (Na+K) 5 max mg/kg Alkaline metals (Ca+Mg) 5 max mg/kg Trace Metals no addition Bioethanol or Ethyl Alcohol Standards In the making of ethanol gasoline blends, if the components meet the specification requirements, the blend properties are not critical. Care has to be taken to follow any of the blend process protocols and good housekeeping. The most important characteristic and requirement of fuel ethanol is its being anhydrous, hence moisture content in fuel is not acceptable. Moisture tolerance of the blend is low and any excess beyond acceptable limits leads to blend separation, the result is that ethanol and the gasoline separates out in two layers. Ethanol being heavier settles at the bottom, and if this happens in the fuel tank of a vehicle, leading to engine stalling and to other problems. Great care is therefore required to be taken of this aspect. Ideally ethanol is a specific molecule but in the process of its manufacturing some impurities in the fuel may remain. These are to be kept below specified limits. Some of these impurities can potentially damage the vehicle engines. At the same time, the presence of higher alcohols (which depends on the production process selected) is beneficial as it helps solubilise the two phases of the blend, i.e., gasoline and ethyl alcohol. ASTM D4806 covers nominally anhydrous denatured fuel ethanol intended for blending with unleaded or leaded gasoline. This specification at present is recommended to be adopted by Lao PDR for the fuel grade ethanol to be produced by any of the raw materials contemplated at present, viz, sugarcane, cassava, corn and sweet sorghum. The principal requirements of this specification are given in the Table 4 below: 5

11 Table 4: Performance requirement (Denatured Fuel Ethanol) 5 Particulars Ethanol, volume%, min 92.1 Prescribed limits Methanol, volume%, max 0.5 Solvent-washed gum, Mg/100 ml, max 5.0 Water content, volume %, max 1 (Note 1) Denaturant content, volume %, min 1.96 volume %, max 4.76 Inorganic Chloride content, mass ppm (mg/l), max 40 (32) Copper content, mg/kg, max 0.1 Acidity (as acetic acid CH3COOH), mass % (mg/l), max (56) (Note 3) phe 6.5 to 9.0 Sulfur, mass ppm, max 30 Appearance Visibly free of suspended or precipitated contaminants (clear and bright) In this specification the denaturants permitted are: Natural Gasoline Gasoline Components, or Unleaded Gasoline, at the minimum concentration prescribed The prohibited denaturants include Methanol Pyrroles Turpentine Ketones, and Tars (high molecular weight pyrolysis products) This specification covers nominally anhydrous denatured fuel ethanol intruded to be blended with unleaded or leaded gasoline at 1 to 10 volume % for use as automotive spark engine fuel. Such standards exist elsewhere also, and a whole set of these are also covered under EPA s Renewable Fuel Standards (RFS). Upgradations in this standard are of a minor nature. Nevertheless, the process to manufacture bioethanol and its refining to make it automotive fuel grade has to be selected with great care, where good quality product is easily obtained. 5 Standard specification for denatured fuel ethanol for blending with gasoline for use as automotive spark-ignition engine fuel. 6

12 STANDARDS FOR BIODIESEL AND BIOETHANOL BLENDS Biodiesel Blend Standards In Lao PDR, initially limited quantities of biodiesel would be available, and that too in some provinces. The available quantities would gradually go up and it is anticipated that by 2025, the 10% blend target could easily be met. In this scenario, different options are available to blend it with diesel. Some of these are: 1. Mix all the biodiesel from the production units in the diesel to be marketed. This may lead to varying percentages being blended, at different times of the year, but up to B-10 only. 2. Another option is to blend all the biodiesel available as B-10 only. In this case limited quantities of the blend would be available. This can be dispensed to identified fleets only, such as the local bus service, or, vehicles of one company alone, etc., through a dedicates dispersing system. This option would minimize the cost for initial operation. Several other options are also possible. Of the two models above the second is recommended, as it has the merit of easy monitoring, both of the fleet vehicles as well as that of the blend preparation and dispensing operation. This model can then be extended subject to increasing supplies being available. With the above in mind, and for the sake of simplicity to start the operations, the blend specifications, ASTM D7467 which covers biodiesel blend B-6 to B-20 is recommended. The main points of the scope of this standard are discussed below. This specification covers fuel blend grades of 6 to 20 volume percent (%) biodiesel with the remainder being a light middle or middle distillate diesel fuel, collectively designated as B-6 to B-20. These grades are suitable for various types of diesel engines. The biodiesel component of the blend shall conform to the requirements of Specification ASTM D6751. The remainder of the fuel shall be a light middle or middle distillate grade diesel fuel conforming to Specification ASTM D975 grades No. 1-D and No. 2-D of any sulphur level specified with the following exceptions. The light middle or middle distillate grade diesel fuel whose sulphur level, aromatic level, cetane, or lubricity falls outside of Specification ASTM D975 may be blended with biodiesel meeting Specification ASTM D6751, provided the finished mixtures meets this specification. The fuel sulphur grades are described as follows: Grade B6 to B20 S15 - A fuel with a maximum of 15 ppm sulphur. Grade B6 to B20 S500 - A fuel with a maximum of 500 ppm sulphur. Grade B6 to B20 S A fuel with a maximum of 5000 ppm sulphur. This specification prescribes the required properties of B-6 to B-20 biodiesel blends at the time and place of delivery. The specification requirements may be applied at other points in the production and distribution system when provided by agreement between the purchaser and the supplier. Nothing in this specification shall preclude observance of country s regulations that may be more restrictive. Table 5 below lists the characteristics and requirements of this specification. Biodiesel (B-100) and the petroleum diesel must meet their respective specifications before blending. This specification covers blend between 6 and 20 percent biodiesel by volume blended with petroleum diesel fuel (Table 6). 6,7 6 Ramsbottom Carbon Residue on 10% bottoms, mass%, max 7 A considerable amount of experience exists in the US with a 20% blend of biodiesel with 80% diesel fuel (B-20). Although biodiesel (B-100) can be used, blends of over 20% biodiesel with diesel fuel should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis until further experience is gained 7

13 Table 5: Specification for Biodiesel Blends B6-B20, ASTM A 8 Property ASTM Method Limits Flash Point (closed cup) D minimum C Water & Sediment D maximum % vol. Kinematic Viscosity, 40 C Ash Content D maximum % mass Sulphur S 15 Grade S 500 Grade D 5453 D max. (15) 0.05 max. (500) Copper Strip Corrosion D 130 No. 3 maximum Cetane D minimum Units % mass (ppm) % mass (ppm) Cloud Point, D 2500 report C Carbon Residue on 10% bottoms D 524 * 0.35 maximum % mass Acid Number D maximum mg KOH/g Distillation, T90 AET D maximum C Oxidation Stability EN minimum hours Lubricity, HFRR at 60 o C D maximum microns Biodiesel Content, % (V/V) D % volume This specification is also characterized by the amount of sulphur in the fuel. This basically comes from the diesel fuel. Thus ASTM D7467, Grade S5000 is suggested, where the sulphur content is up to a maximum of 5000 ppm. The current grade in the USA is S15 where sulphur is limited to 15 ppm. This specification has perhaps the advantage of being the most researched specifications and for which approval of the largest number of automotive manufacturers worldwide has been obtained. A large amount of use has been made of this specification, particularly in the USA. With the advent of higher diesel fuel standard in the country, in later years, suitable upgradation of this specification can also be made. Ethanol Gasoline Blend Standards Ethanol-gasoline blends are usually referred to with an E-prefix. Thus E-5 is 5% ethyl alcohol - 95% gasoline blend v/v, and E-10 is a 10% ethyl alcohol - 90% gasoline blend v/v. In the makeup of ethanol gasoline blends, if the components meet the technical specifications, the blend properties are not critical. Care has to be taken to follow any of the blend process protocols and good housekeeping. 8 National Biodiesel Board (NBB) 8

14 BLENDING ARRANGEMENTS FOR LAO PDR Having talked about the specifications of the standards, for bioethanol and biodiesel it becomes imperative to understand the details of the blending arrangements w.r.t these biofuels. The following section briefly suggests the blending arrangements for Lao PDR. Blending two fuels is a standard unit operation in Chemical Engineering. Types of blending include in-line blending, splash blending, sequential blending, hybrid blending, ratio blending, side stream blending, etc. A critical step in the success of any new fuel is establishing confidence with the consumers. The fuel quality must be consistent and uniform at any location within the country. In a biofuel supply chain blending is therefore a critical element. A preferred blending method will assist in achieving a properly mixed product. It is important for all oil companies to understand that the key to quality is getting petroleum fuel and biofuel to blend and stay blended throughout transportation, delivery and end use. In case of the blending requirement in Lao PDR, to begin with, small volumes will be involved. These are expected to become significant by It is therefore suggested that at the storage depot, splash blending technique may be employed. In this, measured amount of the petroleum fuel and the biofuel is directly loaded into the transportation tank lorry. This fuel is to be delivered to a retail outlet, where, it would be transferred to underground tanks. The movement of the tank lorry during transport and during transferring the product from the lorry to the underground tank would meet the blending requirement. This can be ascertained by examining the product and analysing it. In this operation, the product temperatures must be noted and the oil company should satisfy themselves that the temperature is well above the pour points. This technique is applicable to blend gasoline and ethanol, as well as, petroleum diesel and biodiesel. At a later stage, when the volume requirements of blending will grow to significant levels, in-line blending and subsequent storage may be adopted. The blended fuels can then be directly filled into tank lorry and transported to the retail outlets. It is too early to recommend the size and capacity of the equipment required to be installed for in-line blending. This can be established at a later stage with information on how many locations and how much quantity is required to be blended. Such equipment is readily available and is very simple to install and operate, which can also be automated. Biofuel Analyser The approved methods for biodiesel measurement, EN and the ASTM Method D7371, both specify mid-infrared spectroscopy for the measurement of the biodiesel blend ratio. Infrared analysis works well for FAME (Fatty Acid Methyl Esters) because the biodiesel ester has a characteristic infrared absorption due to the carbonyl bond at 5.7 micrometres or 1745 cm -1. The infrared absorbance can be directly calibrated to read out the percent biodiesel. The same is true for ethanol as it has an infrared absorbance band unique to gasoline at 9.6 micrometres (1042 cm -1 ). Again, the increase of infrared absorbance correlates with the increase in concentration of ethanol in gasoline. An infrared analyser can be set up with a filter mounted on a detector that is specific to the analysis, in this case either 1745 cm -1 for biodiesel or 1042 cm -1 for ethanol. The advantages of a filter-based infrared analyser are many Convenient size Lower cost Ruggedness Decreased power usage A critical feature is ease of use. A fuel sample when placed directly on the exposed sample window, displays the percent ethanol or biodiesel in less than a minute. The sample is cleaned with a wipe, and the analyser is ready for the next measurement. All blending methods have varying costs. Another essential element of blending is product quality check subsequent to blending. To check quality online analysers and other techniques may be used. It should be 9

15 assured that blending should take place well above the pour points of the components such that no crystal history remains. ACTION PLAN FOR BLENDING FOR LAO PDR The action points to start the biofuel blending process in Lao PDR are as follows: 1. Splash blending is to be employed initially because of its very low cost of operations. Later, when volumes are significantly higher, in-line blending may be used. 2. The first blending should be done around Vientiane, as Lao Agrotech s biodiesel processing unit is nearby. This could be done by The Lao State Fuel Company at their storage depot. 3. Preparation of B10 blend only is recommended, as it will keep the size of operations small. Later, when more biodiesel is available, and at other sites also, B10 blends only should be made. 4. Proper fuel metering equipment, and, a blend analyzer (such as IR type) should be employed for keeping blend fuel quality consistent. 10

16 BIOFUEL SUPPLY CHAIN COMPATIBILITY CONSIDERATIONS Biofuel Compatibility Issues As explained in previous section of this document, biofuels have significantly different characteristics than petroleum gasoline and diesel. Thus, they may not always be compatible with gasoline or diesel fuel storage and distribution systems and engines. Hence, the capacity and compatibility of the existing storage infrastructure, refilling equipment and vehicle engines will have to be examined and modifications suggested when deciding the blending percentage and blended fuel standards. Most of the compatibility issues can be easily addressed through requisite modifications in designs and material specifications ensuring the equipment, storage devices and engines tolerate the chemical behaviour of the blended fuel. The biofuel compatibility issues can be divided into two broad categories, (i) storage and distribution infrastructure end equipment, (ii) vehicle engines. These are discussed in detail in the following sections. Compatibility issues in Biofuels Distribution Stage A high order of blended fuel might affect/damage the materials that are used in storage tanks, piping, and distribution/dispensing etc. Suited for non-blended fuels, if these are not equipped and warranted by manufacturers for high order blend fuel levels, it would be hard to operate the biofuel program using the existing infrastructure for storage, dispense ing. Compatibility issues associated with the vehicle engine At the uses end i.e. in the vehicles compatibility issues w.r.t. vehicle durability and operability are bound to arise if proper fuel blends are not used. Therefore, vehicle compatibility, i.e. the ability of a vehicle to run on biofuel blends avoiding permanent damage to the engine, as warranted by the vehicle manufacturer has to be ensured to develop a successful biofuel program. The ensuing section gives a closer look at the main compatibility concerns (Table 6) associated with bioethanol and biodiesel blends at various stages in the biofuel supply chain. 11

17 Table 6: Biofuel Compatibility Issues Compatibility challenges in distribution Compatibility challenges in vehicles BIOETHANOL Blends higher than E10, pose compatibility issues related to corrosion. (Franke et al, 2013). In the developing countries, or countries without biofuel industry, E-5 is assumed to be the blend wall 9 and blends higher than this can pose compatibility issues. (Rimmer, 2011) Less momentous impacts on vehicle compatibility are seen when there are low levels of bioethanol blends (i.e. under E10), (Ministry of Transport NZ, 2006) However, medium blending levels (i.e. E15-E20) may result in some impacts on the engine. The presence of water that is found in bioethanol can make an engine run ineffectively (Consumer News, 2010). Besides this, the midlevel blending can cause an impact on the fuel system by disrupting the air/fuel ratio mainly in vehicles equipped with carburetor engines and steel fuel tanks made prior to (Franke et al, 2013) With increase in the level of blending, the vapor pressure changes. Vapor locks are formed, causing engines to freeze and thereby averting the fuel from moving efficiently to the engine (Grabner Instruments, 2010) There is a likelihood of phase separation causing the bioethanol/water mixture to reside below the gasoline at the bottom of the vehicle fuel tank, resulting in potential vehicle break-down. BIODIESEL Biodiesel don t have many material compatibility associated issues. However, corrosive effects and conditions for microorganisms might arise which may affect fuel quality and eventually fuel system durability (National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2009). Some of common operational risks which can be observed from the utilization of high blend biodiesel in case of vehicles with nonmodified engines include: 1. Clogging caused by contaminants, sterile glycosides, microbes or under cold climate conditions in the Fuel filters; 2. Nozzle choking and deposits of fuel that is accelerated through byproducts of biodiesel in the injector; 3. Deposit formation in the Piston rings and exhaust gas recirculation systems etc (Franke et al, 2013) Measures to deal with the biofuel compatibility issues Establishment of effective biofuel standards can take place only after addressing the aforementioned concerns over compatibility w.r.t. different stages of biofuel supply chain. Some of the measures to deal with these concerns are provided in Table 7. 9 Blend wall: a term to define the limit on biofuel blend to a higher blend level. This term can be used to explain compatibility limitations due to both physical compatibility and supply constraints. 12

18 Table 7: Measures to deal with the biofuel compatibility issues Measures to deal with the compatibility issues at the distribution stage of biofuel Measures to deal with the compatibility issues at the end-use level BIOETHANOL At the biofuels distribution point, physical compatibility with distribution materials has to be taken care of. Therefore, materials used in equipment such as storage tanks, piping, trucks and distribution/dispensing materials should all be equipped and warranted by manufacturers to withstand certain percentages of bioethanol. Distributors would required to retrofit existing storage tanks i.e. the one that were originally made to support lower blends but now might be used for higher blends systems. When progressing to higher bioethanol blending, fuel infrastructures must sell in parallel two petrol grades: the new grade and a separate protection grade for non-compatible fleet so as to safeguard the interest of all. (Lahaussois, 2011) Blends with higher percentages do not comprise much of the global bioethanol market. These fuels though, can be safely combusted in dedicated fleets called Flex-Fuel Vehicles (FFVs). Although a bit expensive but FFVs very adeptly equipped to utilize bioethanol blends that range from E0-E100 as they contain specific engine control modules that identify what % blend is being utilized, and adjust the vehicle system automatically to that blend (US Environmental Protection Agency, 2011). Since, not all light-duty passenger vehicles are compatible with medium or high level biofuel blends, so initially there should be access to old fuel in parallel to new blending levels. And simultaneously, policy measures should be introduced to increase the percentage of vehicles that are compatible with the blended fuel. BIODIESEL To lessen chances of corrosive effects and conditions for microorganisms (that might have an effect on fuel quality and eventually fuel system durability) a mitigation step could be the addition of a synthetic oxidant, along with consistent monitoring of biodiesel in storage and tanks. This shall help in ensuring the oxidation stability levels being kept at optimal levels. (Franke et al, 2013) Higher biodiesel blends might have a probability to disrupt vehicle fuel tanks and fuel systems. So, the engines have to go through retrofitting in order to sustainably utilize higher levels of biodiesel without causing engine problems. Other than retrofitting, another approach can be to offer a protection grade for non-compatible vehicles until fleet renewal is compatible with the blended fuel. (Franke et al, 2013) 13

19 APPENDIX Table: Biodiesel Standards (Biofuel Systems Group Ltd, 2013) Biodiesel Standards Europe USA Petroleum Diesel Specification EN 14214:2003 ASTM D b EN 590:1999 Applies to FAME FAAE Diesel Density 15 C g/cm³ Viscosity 40 C mm²/s Distillation C 90%, 360 C 85%,350 C - 95%,360 C Flashpoint (Fp) C 120 min 93 min 55 min CFPP C *country specific * country specific Cloud point C * report Sulphur mg/kg 10 max 15 max 350 max CCR 100% %mass 0.05 max Carbon residue %mass 0.3 max 0.3 max (10% dist. residue) Sulphated ash %mass 0.02 max 0.02 max Oxid ash %mass 0.1 max Water mg/kg 500 max 500 max 200 max Total contamination mg/kg 24 max 24 max Cu corrosion max 3h/50 C Oxidation stability hrs;110 C 6 hours min 3 hours min N/A (25 g/m3) Cetane number 51 min 47 min 51 min Acid value mgkoh /g 0.5 max 0.5 max Methanol %mass 0.20 max 0.2 max Ester content %mass 96.5 min Monoglyceride %mass 0.8 max Diglyceride %mass 0.2 max Triglyceride %mass 0.2 max Free glycerol %mass 0.02 max 0.02 max Total glycerol %mass 0.25 max 0.24 max Iodine value 120 max Linolenic acid ME %mass 12 max C(x:4) & greater %mass 1 max unsaturated esters Phosphorus mg/kg 10 max 10 max Alkalinity mg/kg Gp I metals (Na,K) mg/kg 5 max 5 max GpII metals (Ca,Mg) mg/kg 5 max 5 max PAHs %mass 11 max Lubricity / wear µm at 60 C 460 max I

20 REFERENCES Biofuel Systems Group Ltd, Biofuel Standards. [Online] Available at: [Accessed 20 October 2013]. Consumer News, Capability of Vehicles to Satisfactorily Operate on Bioethanol Blend Petrol. Accessed from: [Accessed on 27 October 2013] Franke, Bernd; Reinhardt, Guido; Malavelle, Jérôme; Faaij, André; Fritsche, Uwe,2013 Global Assessments and Guidelines for Sustainable Liquid Biofuels. A GEF Targeted Research Project. Grabner Instruments,2010. Ethanol blending: How to prevent vapor lock. Accessed on November, 2010 at: Blending.pdf [Accessed on 27 October 2013] Lahaussois D Personal communication on December 18, Ministry of Transport New Zealand, Enabling Biofuels. Risks to Engines and Other Vehicles. Accessed on January, [Accessed on 27 October 2013] National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Biodiesel Handling and Use Guide, Fourth Edition. NREL/TP Accessed on March 2010 at: [Accessed on 27 October 2013] Rimmer J., Personal communication with Shell representatives in June, Paris, France. Tyson, K. S., McCormick, R. L., Energy., U. S. D. o. E.-O. o. E. E. a. R. & (U.S.), N. R. E. L., Biodiesel handling and use guidelines. 3rd ed. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. US Environmental Protection Agency, E85 and Flex Fuel Vehicles: Technical Highlights. EPA420-F , October Washington, D.C. Yoon, S. H., Park, S. H. & Lee, C. S., Experimental Investigation on the Fuel Properties of Biodiesel and Its Blends at Various Temperatures. Energy & Fuels, p II

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