List of Illustrations

Transcription

1 List of Illustrations 1-1 Evolution of Modern Cryogenic-Liquid-Propellant Rocket Engines at Rocketdyne Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) Titan III First-Stage Booster Engines Aerojet's LR87-AJ Centaur's Main Propulsion Engines Pratt and Whitney Aircraft RL A Engine Schematic for Pratt and Whitney Aircraft RL A, Depicting Major Subsystems Typical Turbopump Fed Liquid Propellant Rocket Engine System Pressure Balance on the Chamber and Nozzle Wall Altitude Performances of the H-l Liquid Propellant Rocket Engine Gas Flow Within Liquid-Propellant-Rocket Thrust Chamber Loss of Total Pressure for Two Typical Values as a Function of the Nozzle Contraction Area Ratio c Thrust and Pressure Distribution in an Overexpanded De Laval Nozzle Variations of Isentropic Pressure Ratio and Mach Number with Area Ratio in Converging and Diverging Sections of De Laval Nozzle Straight Cylindrical Thrust Chamber Cylindrical Thrust Chamber With Convergent Nozzle Redesign of Thrust Chamber With Divergent Nozzle Section Effect of e on Engine Performance Altitude Thrust Coefficient as Function of Area Ratio and Specific Heat Ratio Flowchart for Rocket-Engine Preliminary Design Typical Rocket-Engine Performance vs. Altitude Typical Thrust-Decay Diagram Theoretical Thrust Chamber Performance vs. Mixture Ratio for N2O4/N2H4 at pc = 1,000 psia Shifting Equilibrium and Optimum Sea-Level Expansion Early Progress in Ratio of Thrust to Engine Weight Propulsion Systems for Saturn V-Appllo Lunar Landing Mission Apollo 10 Lunar Mission Profile Typical Single-Stage-to-Orbit Vehicle, Mission Profile, and Trade Study Results Basic Cycles for Pump-Fed Liquid-Propellant Engines Pump-Fed Liquid Power Cycles of Propellant Engines Candidate Thrust-Chamber Nozzle Concepts Gas Generated (GG) Cycle Performance Optimization Staged-Combustion-Cycle Performance Optimization Thrust-Chamber Weight Trends Turbopump Weight Trends System (Ducting, Pressurization, etc.) Weight Trends Miscellaneous (Valves, Controls, GGs, PBs, Manifolds) Weight Trends Engine Weight Trends Thrust-to-Weight Ratios for GG Cycles Typical Engine-System Schematic Diagram Typical Engine-System Sequence Diagram A-l Engine Performance Diagram Preliminary Layout of A-l First-Stage Engine System A-2 Stage Engine-System Schematic Diagram Preliminary Layout of A-2 Stage Engine System A-2 Stage Engine-System Sequence Diagram A-3 Stage Engine-System Schematic Diagram Preliminary Layout of A-3 Stage Propulsion System A-3 Stage Engine and Propulsion System Operational Sequence A-4 Stage Engine and Propulsion System Schematic Diagram Preliminary Layout of A-4 Stage Propulsion System A-4 Stage Engine Operational Sequence

2 406 DESIGN OF LIQUID-PROPELLANT ROCKET ENGINES 4-1 Thrust-Chamber Assembly Thrust-Chamber Injector Theoretical O2/RP-2 Combustion Data. Frozen composition; (p c )ns = 1,000 psia Theoretical O2/H2 Combustion Data. Frozen composition; Cp c )ns = 800 psia Theoretical F2/H2 Combustion Data. Frozen composition; (pc)ns = 100 psia Theoretical N2O3/N2H4 Combustion Data. Frozen composition; (p c )ns = 100 psia Effect of L* on c* Value of Experimental Thrust Chamber Frequently Used Geometrical Shapes for Combustion Chambers Contraction Ratio Relationships Used in Scaling Program Chamber Length Relationships Used in Scaling Program Elements of Basic Cylindrical Combustion Chamber Conical Nozzle Contour Bell Nozzle Contour Thrust Efficiency vs Bell Nozzle Length Parabolic Approximation of Bell Nozzle Contour n and 9 e as Function of Expansion Area Ratio Comparison of Nozzle Shapes E-D Nozzle at Low Altitude Operation E-D Nozzle at High Altitude Operation Aerodynamic Spike Flow Field Illustrated Under Altitude Conditions Nozzle Performance Comparison Cluster Nozzle Concepts Linear Engine A-l Stage Engine Thrust Chamber, Internal Configuration Layout: = 14, 80% Bell, L* = 45 in., e c = A-2 Stage Engine Thrust Chamber, Internal Configuration Layout: e = 40, 75% Bell, L* = 26 in., c = A-3 Stage Engine Thrust Chamber, Internal Configuration Layout: = 35, 70% Bell, L* = 28 in., c = A-4 Stage Engine Thrust Chamber, Internal Configuration Layout: = 35, 70% Bell, L* = 32 in., c = Values of Correction Factor a for Property Variation Across Boundary Layer Thermal Resistance of Carbon Deposit on Chamber Walls LO2/RP-1, Mixture Ratio = 2.35, (p c )ns = psia Heat Transfer Schematic for Regenerative Cooling Heat Flux vs Coolant Side Wall Temperature of Typical Propellant in Various Heat Transfer Regions Coaxial Shell Thrust Chamber Cutaway SSME Main Combustion Chamber Circular Tube Wall of Regeneratively Cooled Thrust Chamber Elongated Tube Wall of Regeneratively Cooled Thrust Chamber Typical Regeneratively Cooled Tube Wall Thrust Chamber Detail of Injector Manifolding and Return Manifold of Typical Regeneratively Cooled Tube Wall Thrust Chamber Typical Channel Wall Configuration Flightweight XLR-132 Thrust Chamber Showing 1-1/2-Pass, Longitudinal, Coolant Channel in Wall Hot-Gas Heat Transfer Coefficient Profile Sample Output of the REGEN Computer Program Curvature Enhancement Factor Profile Typical Dump-Cooled Chamber Fabrication Methods Film-Cooling Model Experimental Hydrogen/Oxygen, Film-Cooled Thrust Chamber Effect of Outer Zone Mixture Ratio Bias on Combustion Chamber Heat Flux (LOX/RP-1 at 2,000 psi) Transpiration Cooling Model

3 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Ablatively Cooled Thrust Chamber Ablatively Cooled Thrust Chamber with Throat Insert for High Chamber Pressure Applications Schematic of Radiation Cooling Baffled Injector Velocity Effects in Injector Manifolds Concentric Ring Injector Integral Face Plate Injector Bipropellant Gas Generator Injector Types of Injector Manifolds Typical Injector Element Types Resultant Angle of Impinging Streams... Ill 4-59 Pintle Injector Lance Sustainer Pintle Injector LOX Post Schematic Disposable Solid Propellant Gas Generator Schematic of Monopropellant Gas Generator Liquid Bipropellant Gas Generator Cross Section of SSME Powerhead Assembly Schematic Diagram of Thrust Chamber Gas Tapoff System Radially Outward Firing Pyrotechnic Igniter for Center of Injector Mounting Gas Generator Igniter With Built-in Fusible Link Hypergol Slug Cartridge and Housing Spark Igniter Assembly Integral Ignition Exciter and Spark Plug Assembly Augmented Spark Igniter Combustion Wave Ignition System Resonance Igniter Schematic of a Rocketdyne AR-1 Superperformance Rocket Engine Three Modes of Instability Injection-Coupled Acoustic Instability Typical Chug Instability Combustion Chamber Divergent Wall Gap Radial and Axial Acoustic Cavities in Combustion Chamber Combustion Chamber Perturbation Methods Bomb-Induced Instability Data, Coaxial Injector Helium Pressurization System Without Heating Helium Pressurization System Using Thrust-Chamber Heat Exchangers Helium Cascade System Helium Pressurization System Using Heaters in Storage Vessel Estimated Pressure Drops for A-4 Stage Oxidizer Tank Pressurization System Thrust-Chamber Heat Exchanger Typical Heat-Exchanger Design A-2 Stage Propellant-Tank Pressurization System (Schematic) Typical Solid-Propellant Gas Generator Pressurization System Solid-Propellant Gas Generator Without Cooling Solid-Propellant Gas Generator With Solid Coolant Solid-Propellant Gas Generator With Azide Cooling Pack Helium System With Heating by Solid-Propellant Gas Generator Single Liquid-Propellant-Gas-Generator With Injection Cooling Single Liquid-Propellant-Gas-Generator Helium System Dual Bipropellant Gas-Generator System With Injection Cooling Main-Propellant-Tank Dual Direct Injection System Main-Propellant-Tank Series Direct Injection System

4 408 DESIGN OF LIQUID-PROPELLANT ROCKET ENGINES 6-1 Range of Operation for Typical Propellant Pumps Rocket Engine Turbine Design Envelopes Pump Configurations Elements of a Centrifugal-Flow Pump SSME HPFTP Elements of an Axial-Flow Pump SSME LPOTP Two-Blade-Row Inducer Turbine Elements Single-Stage, Single-Rotor Impulse Turbine Single-Stage, Two-Rotor, Velocity-Compounded Impulse Turbine Two-Stage, Pressure-Compounded Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine Typical Turbine Power Sources Principal Turbopump Drives... l6l 6-16 Major Elements of a Geared Turbopump Typical Turbopump Gears and Bearings SSME HPOTP Engine System Resistance and Pump Characteristics Relationship Between the Pump Specific Speeds and Pump Impeller Geometries Typical Cavitation Characteristics of a Pump Operated at Rated Design Speed Effects of N, (NPSH) C and N ss on Turbopump Selection for a Typical LO2/RP-1 Booster-Stage Rocket Engine System Variation of Pump Efficiency with Specific Speed H-Q, Efficiency, and Required Power Characteristic Curves of a Typical Centrifugal Pump Effect of Turbine-Inlet Temperature on Working-Fluid Available Energy Effect of Turbine Pressure Ratio on Working-Fluid Available Energy Typical Efficiency Curves of Impulse-Type Turbines Trimming Effects of a Typical Pump Typical Off-Design Characteristics of Various Types of Pumps Propellant-Flow and Chamber-Pressure Transient Characteristics During Engine-System Start Velocity Diagrams for a Pump Pump Speed and Diameter as a Function of Supplied Inlet Pressure Suction-Specific-Speed Capability With No Thermodynamic Suppression Head Benefit Suction Specific Speed Achieved in Cryogenics Typical Shrouded Centrifugal Impeller With Backward Curved Blades Flow-Velocity Diagrams for the Impeller Shown in Figure Impeller Head Coefficient as a Function of Discharge Flow Coefficient, Blade Number, and Blade Angle Impeller Designs Plain-Volute and Vaned-Diffuser-Volute Centrifugal Pump Casings Plain Volute Casing of a Centrifugal Pump Potential Volute Configurations Typical Double-Tongue and Double-Discharge Volute Configurations Typical Layout of the Diffuser for a Pump Balancing Axial Thrusts of a Centrifugal Pump by the Balance-Chamber Method Balance-Piston Concept Effect of Vane Height on the Performance of an Axial-Flow Pump H-Q, T -Q Data for Axial Pump With Stall Inducer, Inducer Stator, Impeller Rotor, and Impeller Stator of an Axial-Flow Pump Vane Elements and Flow-Velocity Diagrams of Axial-Flow Pumps Axial-Flow Pump Volute Casing and Balance-Piston Arrangement Typical Single-Stage, Two-Rotor, Velocity-Compounded Impulse Turbine Two-Stage Reaction Turbine for SSME HPFTP Typical Steps in the Turbine Design Process Example of a Forced-Vortex-Design Rotor Blade

5 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Nozzles, Rotor Blades, and Velocity Diagrams of a Typical Single-Stage Impulse Turbine Effect of Number of Active Arcs on Partial Admission Turbine Efficiency Typical Rotor-Blade Construction Velocity Diagrams of a Typical Single-Stage, Two-Rotor, Velocity-Compounded Impulse Turbine Velocity Diagrams of a Typical Two-Stage, Two-Rotor, Pressure-Compounded Impulse Turbine SSME HPFTP Turbine Velocity Diagram at Full Power Dynamic Response of a Simple System Effect of Rotor Supports on Critical Speeds Damped Critical Speed Map Stability of a Simple Rotor System Graphical Representation of Rotor Stability Typical Ball-Bearing Designs Typical Roller-Bearing Designs Typical Duplex-Pair Arrangements of Ball Bearings Typical Hydrostatic-Bearing Features Face Contact Seals Segmented Shaft-Riding Seals Floating-Ring Seal Convergent Tapered-Face Hydrostatic Face Seal Rayleigh-Step Hydrodynamic Face Seal Spiral-Groove Hydrodynamic Face Seal Labyrinth-Seal Designs Effect of Labyrinth Design on Leakage Typical Seal System for Separating High-Pressure Propellants Assembly Design Layout of the Hypothetical A-l Stage Engine Turbopump Propellant-Mixture-Ratio Control Loop for the A-4 Stage Engine Propellant-Utilization-Control System for the A-4 Stage Propulsion System Typical Schematic of a Thrust-Vector-Control System Using Hydraulic or Pneumatic Actuators Typical Schematic for a Thrust-Vector-Control System Using Electromechanical Actuators Engine Alignment Secondary Injection Systems CCM System Development Methodology CCM System Development Considerations Orbital Transfer Vehicle Engine Control System Top-Level-Function Flow Diagram SSME Block 11 Controller Block Diagram of an Open-Loop Control System Block Diagram of a Closed-Loop Control System CCM Design of an Expert/Adaptive Control System Time-Response Specifications Multiloop System Multivariable Feedback Control Control System for Multiple Output Multiloop Regulator Compressible Orifice Flow Bipropellant-Valve Schematic Pilot and Main-Valve Displacement vs. Time Main-Valve Pressure vs. Time Dynamic Shaft and Piston Seals for Fluid-Control Components Seating Closures Used in Fluid-Control Components Design of Typical Butterfly-Type Propellant Valve

6 410 DESIGN OF LIQUID-PROPELLANT ROCKET ENGINES 7-26 Four-Inch Butterfly-Type Main Liquid Oxygen Valve Used on Rocketdyne Atlas ICBM Booster Engines Mechanical Linkage Between the Main Oxidizer Valve and the Igniter Fuel Sequence Valve of the A-l Stage Engine Typical Required Opening and Closing Torques vs. Gate Angular Position for a Butterfly Valve Space Shuttle Main Engine Main Oxidizer Valve Design of Saturn First-Stage F-l for Poppet-Type Propellant Valve Typical Venturi-Type Propellant Valve Designed and Manufactured by Fox Valve Development Co Typical Gate-Type Propellant Valve Normally Closed Solenoid-Operated Three-Way Valve Four-Way Solenoid Valve Schematic Two-Stage Nozzle/Flapper Electrohydraulic Flow Control Servovalve Servovalve Cross Section Single-Stage "Jet Pipe" Electrohydraulic Servovalve With Mechanical Feedback Direct-Drive Servovalve Schematic of a Typical Gas-Pressure-Regulator Controller Schematics of Typical Single-Bleed, Poppet-Type, Pneumatic Servovalves Used in Gas Pressure Regulators Schematics of Various Gas-Pressure-Regulator Designs Dynamic Response Characteristics of a Typical Pneumatic Pressure Regulator Schematic of a Typical Dome-Loaded, Negative-Gain-Type Gas Regulator With an Alternate Mode of Operation as a Shutoff Valve Typical Dome-Loaded, Zero-Gain Type Gas-Pressure Regulator Loaded by a Bleed Regulator Integrating-Type Gas Pressure Regulator With Spool-Type, Four-Way Servovalve Schematic of a Typical Closed-Loop, Fluid-Flow Control System Schematic of a Typical Sliding-Piston-Type Liquid-Flow Regulator Typical Liquid-Pressure Regulator Design for Liquid Oxygen Service Low-Capacity, Direct-Operated Gas-Pressure-Relief Valves Coned-Disk-Spring, Force-Deflection Curve Schematic of a Typical High-Capacity, Pilot-Operated Tank-Gas-Pressure Relief Valve Typical Poppet-Type Check Valve Typical Swing-Gate-Type Check Valve Augmented-Force Check Valve Used in the SSME Purge System Typical Burst-Diaphragm Designs Typical Explosive-Actuated Pilot Valve... 26l 7-57 Temperature vs. EMF Curves Response Times of Sheathed, Grounded Thermocouples Conventional Thermal Junctions Cryogenic Temperature Sensor l SSME Pressure Transducer SSME Flight Accelerometer Turbine-Type Flowmeter HPFTP Speed Sensor Acoustic Equivalents of Pressure-Transducer Mounting Cavities Typical Block Diagram, Engine-to-Vehicle Electrical Connections Wire List Physical-Routing Diagram Typical Solder Terminals SSME Harness Configurations Functional Diagram of an Engine Controller Functional Diagram of Input Electronics Output-Electronics Redundancy Diagram Flow Diagram Program Design Language

7 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Propellant-Tank Design Configuration of a Typical Prepackaged Storable-Liquid- Propulsion System Propellant-Tank Design Configuration of a Typical Booster-Stage Propulsion System Propellant-Tank Design Configuration of a Typical Upper-Stage Propulsion System Various Propellant-Tank Arrangements of a Typical Vehicle System Typical Welded Propellant-Tank Construction Nomenclature of Principal Tank Elements Ellipse Ratio k vs. Knuckle Factor K, Compression Stress -K, and Parameter E Design Detail of a Typical Full-Penetration, Single-Welded Butt Joint for Propellant Tanks Design of a Typical Storable Propellant Tank With a Forged One-Piece Common Bulkhead Rate of Change of Saturation Vapor Pressure to Temperature for Liquid Hydrogen Rate of Change of Saturation Vapor Pressure to Temperature for Liquid Oxygen Construction Elements of a Typical Liquid Hydrogen Tank Insulation Design (External Type) Design of a Typical Insulated Common Bulkhead Separating LH2 and LO2 Tanks A Typical Filament-Wound Tank Typical Designs of Propellant-Tank Pressurant Diffusers Progression of an Apex-Initiated Diaphragm During Expulsion Movable Piston Used in a Cylindrical Propellant Tank for Positive Expulsion Surface Tension Propellant Storage Assembly Propellant Acquisition Device Screens and Bulkhead Communication Screen Operation Various Interconnecting Components and Mounts in a Typical LH2/LO2 Pump-Fed Engine System Tightly Formed Bellows Subassembly Used to Absorb Torsional Deflection of Primary Bellows in Inlet Line of Pump on J-2 Engine Compression-Type Flexible Line Configurations Propellant Feeding Arrangement on the LEM Descent Engine Plan View of Articulating Duct Arrangement in Gimbal Plane of Space Shuttle Main Engine Typical Pump-Discharge, High-Pressure Propellant Duct with Restraining Links Typical Pump Seal Drain Schematic Flow Guide Vanes in Sharp Elbows of Pump Inlet Lines Pressure-Loss Coefficient for 90-deg Bends in Convoluted Metal Hose, Annular or Helical Flow-Distribution Device Incorporating an "Egg-Crate" Type of Flow Straightener Flow Splitter in Propellant-Feed System of LEM Descent Engine Flare Types of Threaded Couplings Dynamic-Beam Fluid Fitting Typical Installations of Fittings into MS33649 Bosses Basic Types of Flanged Couplings Comparison of Flanged-Coupling Designs Used on SSME and Saturn Engines Two Kinds of Flange Deflection Resulting From Lack of Rigidity Provisions for Monitoring Leakage at a Joint Structural Design Configuration of a Typical Flange Joint Preliminary Flange Sizing-Criteria for SSME Type of Flange Joint Elastomer O-Ring Installation O-Ring Extrusion Related to Diametral Clearance, Fluid Pressure, and O-Ring Hardness Flange Seal Groove Design Metal O-Ring Installation Pressure-Assisted Seals Types of Welded Joints Used in Fluid Systems Four Examples of Bellows Joints Bellows Restraint Linkage Configurations Major Bellows Convolutions and Characteristics Typical Omega Joints

8 412 DESIGN OF LIQUID-PROPELLANT ROCKET ENGINES 9-31 Deflection-Limiting Root Rings Three Primary Modes of Bellows Vibration Chain-Link Restraint Joint With Internal Tie Internally-Tied Tripod Flex Joint Used on Discharge Duct of SSME Low-Pressure Pump Externally-Tied Gimbal-Ring Flex Joint Used on SSME High-Pressure Lines Thrust-Compensating Linkage Employing Thrust-Compensating Bellows (PVC Joint) Internal Pressure on Thrust-Compensating Linkage of F-l Pump Inlet Line External Pressure of Thrust-Compensating Linkage Installation of Compression Bellows to Minimize Loading on Support Structure Design Change to Preclude Fatigue Failure of Bellows-to-Duct Attachments on H-l Turbine Exhaust Fitup Problem With Resistance Seam Welding of Thin-Wall Ducts Typical Flow-Liner Configurations Gimbal-Plane Wraparound Hose Configuration Three Stages of Operation of a Typical Manually Operated Disconnect Typical Ring-Type Gimbal Mount Designed for Low-Thrust, Upper Stage Engine Typical Cross-Type Gimbal Mount Designed for Medium-Thrust Engine Spherical Type Gimbal Bearing Assembly F-l Engine Computer-Model Structure Schematic Description of the Combustion Process Pump and Turbine Performance Combustion-Gas Properties Start-Transient Model for Typical Turbopump-Feed Engine System Utilizing a Gas Generator for Turbine Drive Cutoff-Transient Model of the Typical Engine of Figure Feed Combustion System Nyquist Stability at Throttled Conditions Propellant-Flow Design Characteristics of a Typical Pressure Fed Engine System (Oxidizer or Fuel) Propellant-Flow Design Characteristics of the A-l Stage Turbopump Fed Engine System Chamber Pressure vs. Engine Thrust at Sea Level for the A-l Stage Engine C* Correction vs. Change in Engine Mixture Ratio Curve for the A-l Stage Engine Typical Pneumatic Control Package Design Used in Liquid-Propellant Rocket Engine Systems Major Component and Subsystem Packages of Turbopump-Fed Liquid-Propellant Rocket Engine System Packaging Design Detail of the Engine Shown in Figure Various Protective Closure Covers for the Engine Shown in Figure Dual-Engine Cluster Three-Engine Cluster... 36l Space Shuttle Orbiter Three Main Engine Cluster Space Shuttle Orbiter Aft Fuselage... 36l Stage-Payload Weight vs. Number of Engines in Cluster Typical Cluster Reliability Prediction vs. Number of Engines in Cluster and of Development Time Typical Engine-Cluster Arrangements Typical Five-Engine Cluster Configuration (Center Engine Fixed, Four Outer Engines Gimballed) Typical Line Connections on an Experimental Liquid-Propellant Rocket Engine Typical Pump-Inlet Pressure Variation of a Vehicle Affected by Longitudinal Oscillations Closed-Loop Coupling of Propulsion System and Vehicle (POGO) Standpipe With Bubble for POGO Spring-Loaded Accumulator for POGO Suppression, Titan II Fuel Pump Inlet Line Schematic of POGO-Suppression System in LOX Feed System on SSME

9 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Typical Base-Heating Protection Concepts (Center Engine Fixed, Outer Engines Gimballed) Center-Engine Flame-Impingement Shield Typical Interstage Temperature Environment for an Upper-Space Vehicle Stage Using Cryogenic Propellents 565 SCFM (-100'F), Nitrogen Purge Typical Interstage Environment for an Upper Space Vehicle Stage Using Cryogenic Propellants 4170 SCFM (250 F), Nitrogen Purge Multistage-Vehicle Interstage Typical Stage-Separation Sequence Typical Engine Thrust-Decay Deviations Space Shuttle Orbiter OMS Space Shuttle Orbiter RCS Typical Liquid-Propellant-Rocket-Engine Thrust-Time Histories for Various Spacecraft Maneuvers Schematic of the Transtage Propulsion System RS-44 Pump-Fed Cryogenic-Propellant Rocket Engine XLR-132 Pump-Fed Storable-Propellant Rocket Engine XLR-132 Schematic Regeneratively Cooled Storable-Propellant OMS Engine Typical Mechanically-Linked, Poppet-Type, Dual-Propellant On-Off or Throttling Valve for Spacecraft Main Propulsion Systems Using Hypergolic Earth-Storable Propellants Basic Schematic of a Typical Reaction Control System Reaction Control System Installation for the Space Shuttle Orbiter Combustion Chamber Char Depth vs. Cumulative Firing Time of a Typical Ablative-Cooled Reaction Control Thrust Chamber Radiation-Cooled RCS Thruster

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