Power Conversion of Renewable Energy Systems

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1 Power Conversion of Renewable Energy Systems

3 Ewald F. Fuchs l Mohammad A.S. Masoum Power Conversion of Renewable Energy Systems

4 Ewald F. Fuchs Department of Electrical, Computer, and Energy Engineering University of Colorado Boulder, CO USA Mohammad A.S. Masoum Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering Curtin University Perth, WA Australia (Corrected at 2nd printing 2012). ISBN e-isbn DOI / Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London Library of Congress Control Number: # Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (

5 Preface This book is intended for undergraduate and graduate students in electrical and other engineering disciplines as well as for professionals in related fields. It is assumed that the reader has already completed electrical circuit and electronics courses covering basic concepts such as Ohm s, Kirchhoff s, Ampere s and Faraday s laws, Norton and Thevenin equivalent circuits, Fourier analysis, and the characteristics of diodes and transistors. This text combines these technologies and can serve as an introduction for an undergraduate course where the prerequisites are circuits and electronic analyses and as a first graduate course on renewable energy. The top-down approach introduces the systems first in terms of block diagrams and then proceeds to analyze each component. Rudimentary mechanical, chemical, aeronautical, and electrical principles are assumed to be known to the reader. Application examples highlight conventional and renewable energy problems. Software programs such as Mathematica, Spice and Matlab are applied to solve component and system problems. This book has evolved from the content of courses given by the authors at the University of Colorado at Boulder, the Iran University of Science and Technology at Tehran, and the Curtin University of Technology at Perth, Australia. It is suitable for both electrical and non-electrical engineering students and has been particularly written for students or practicing engineers who want to educate themselves through the inclusion of about 170 application examples with solutions. More than 350 references are cited, mostly journal and conference papers as well as national and international standards and guidelines. The International System (SI) of units has been used throughout with some reference to the American/English system of units. Figure 1 below indicating the reversal of Arctic cooling trend as published in the Science 325 article Recent Warming Reverses Long-Term Arctic Cooling, by Darrell S. Kaufman et al. [1] graphically captures our rationale for writing this book. Historical temperatures as found by Mann et al. and Moberg et al. are plotted together in graph G with recent findings as documented in [2, 3]. Trend line F indicates Arctic cooling for most of the last 2,000 years, explained by a shift in the Earth s elliptical orbit of the sun. However, the cooling has been overwhelmed in the last century by human-caused global warming. v

6 vi Preface Temperature anomaly ( C) F G Kaufman Mann et al (CPS) Moberg et al Mann et al (EIV) Year Insolation (Wm -2 ) Fig. 1 Reversal of Arctic cooling trend during the past (AD) 2,000 years (From [1]) Key Features: l Provides theoretical and practical insight into renewable energy problems. l 170 practical application (example) problems with solutions, some implemented in PSpice, Mathematica, and Matlab. l A total of 122 problems at the end of the chapters dealing with practical applications. Boulder, CO Ewald F. Fuchs Perth, WA Mohammad A.S. Masoum August 2010 References 1. Kaufman, D. S. et al.: Recent warming reverses long-term arctic cooling, Science, Vol. 325, No. 5945, Sept. 4, 2009, pp , DOI: /science M. E. Mann et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105, (2008). doi: /pnas pmid: A. Moberg, D. M. Sonechkin, K. Holmgren, N. M. Datsenk, W. Karlén, Nature 433, 613 (2005).

7 Acknowledgments The encouragement and support of Dipl.-Ing. Dietrich J. Roesler, formerly with the US Department of Energy, Washington, DC, one of the first professionals initiating the research of photovoltaic power plants [1] as part of the DOE mission, is greatly appreciated. The authors wish to express gratitude to their families: wives Wendy and Roshanak, sons Franz, Amir and Ali, and daughters Heidi and Maryam for their help in shaping and proofreading the manuscript. Lastly, the work on numerical field calculation [2] initiated by the late Professor Edward A. Erdelyi is reflected in part of this book. The authors thank the students of ECEN3170 (Energy Conversion 1), ECEN4167 (Energy Conversion 2) and ECEN5017 (Conventional and Renewable Energy Issues) taught at the University of Colorado during 2010 and 2011 for their constructive criticism and help. References 1. Dugan, R. C.; Jewell, W. T.; Roesler, D. J.: Harmonics and reactive power from linecommutated inverters in proposed photovoltaic subdivision, ID: ; DOE Report Contract Number W-7405-ENG-2, Jan. 1, Trutt, F. C.; Erdelyi, E. A.; Jackson, R. F.: The non-linear potential equation and its numerical solution for highly saturated electrical machines, IEEE Trans. on Aerospace, Vol. 1, Issue 2, Aug, 1963, pp vii

9 Contents 1 Introduction Introduction Overview The Role of Energy Conservation, Renewable Energy Systems, Fossil and Nuclear Power Plants Examples Frequency/Load Control and Power Quality of Distribution System with High Penetration of Renewable Energy Sources and Storage Devices Summary Problems References Block Diagrams of Electromechanical Systems Relation Between Differential Equations of Motion and Transfer Functions Circuits with a Constant or P (Proportional) Transfer Function Circuits Acting as Integrators First-Order Delay Transfer Function Circuit with Combined Constant (P) and Integrating (I) Transfer Function Commonly Occurring (Drive) Systems Open-Loop Operation Closed-Loop Operation Multiple Closed-Loop Systems Principle of Operation of DC Machines Central Air-Conditioning System for Residence Summary Problems References ix

10 x Contents 3 Electric Energy Sources Public Utility System Fuel Cells Principle of Operation of a Fuel Cell Fuel for a Fuel Cell Batteries Principle of Operation of Batteries Charging and Discharging of Lead-Acid Batteries Lead-Acid Battery Care Equivalent Circuit of Lead-Acid Battery Performance Properties of Automobile Batteries Used for Starting the Internal Combustion (IC) Engine Photovoltaic Array Model Solar Radiation and Solar Cells Voltage Current Characteristics and Equivalent Circuit Solar Array Output Characteristics Summary Problems References Electronic Controllers for Feedback Systems P Controller PI Controller Transfer Functions of Separately Excited DC Machine Speed Control via Armature-Voltage Variation (So-Called Armature-Voltage Control) Speed Control via Field Voltage Variation (So-Called Flux-Weakening Control) Relative Stability: Gain Margin and Phase Margin Gain Margin Phase Margin Common-Mode Rejection Ratio Summary Problems References Power Electronic Converters Introduction Power Electronic Switches and Their Gating Circuits Diodes Thyristors Self-Commutated Switches Triac

11 Contents xi Gating Circuit for MOSFET Representation of a Thyristor (Line-Commutated Switch) by a Self-Commutated Switch (e.g., MOSFET) and a Diode Basic Concepts Related to Electronic Converters Small Ripple Approximation Inductor Volt-Second Balance or Inductor Flux Linkage Balance Capacitor Ampere-Second Balance or Capacitor Charge Balance DC-to-DC Converters (Choppers) Step-Down DC-to-DC Converter or Chopper (or Buck Converter) Step-Up DC-to-DC Converter or Chopper (or Boost Converter) Two-Quadrant (Step-Down, Step-Up) DC-to-DC Converters or Choppers (or Buck-Boost Converters) Four-Quadrant (Step-Down, Step-Up) DC-to-DC Converters or Choppers (or Buck-Boost Converters) The Need for Voltage and Current Control AC-to-DC Converters (Rectifiers) DC-to-AC Converters (Inverters) A Simple (6-Step or 6-Pulse) Voltage-Source Inverter Pulse-Width-Modulated (PWM) Voltage-Source Inverter Thyristor Controllers Summary Problems References Magnetic Circuits: Inductors and Permanent Magnets Ampere s Law and Ohm s Law Applied to Magnetic Circuits Magnetic Circuit with One Winding and an Ideal (B H) Characteristic (m r ¼1) Flux Linkage, Inductance and Magnetic Stored Energy Magnetic Circuit with Two Windings Magnetic Properties of Materials Permanent-Magnet Materials Measurement of Low Losses of High-Efficiency Inductors Summary Problems References

12 xii Contents 7 Single-Phase, Two-Winding Transformers and Autotransformers/Variacs Transformers at No-Load Ideal Transformer at Load Transformer Equivalent Circuits Autotransformers and Variacs Parameters of Single-Phase Transformers from Computer-Aided Tests Summary Problems References Three-Phase Power System and Three-Phase Transformers Three-Phase AC Systems Generation of Three-Phase Voltages Three-Phase Voltages, Currents and Power Constancy of Power Flow in a Three-Phase System Three-Phase Transformers Equivalence of Y and D-Connected Circuits Three-Phase Transformer Circuits Summary Problems References Force and Torque Production in Electromagnetic Circuits Lorentz Force Law Approach General Approach Based on Conservation of Energy Magnetic Energy and Co-energy Magnetic Energy W fld ðl; xþ and Force f fld (l, x) as a Function of the Independent Variables l and x Magnetic Co-energy W 0 fld ði; xþ and Force f fld(i, x) as a Function of the Independent Variables i and x Radial Forces Acting on Iron Core of an Induction Machine Summary Problems References Rotating and Linear Motion Electric Machines Flux Patterns of Longitudinal and Transversal Rotating and Linear Machines Longitudinal Types of Machines Transversal Types of Machines Elementary Concepts

13 Contents xiii 10.3 Alternating and Rotating (Circular, Elliptic) Magnetic Fields, Induced Voltage, and Torques Non-Salient-Pole (Round-Rotor) Synchronous Machines Induction Machines Summary Problems References Mechanical Loads Steady-State Stability Criterion Mechanical Load Torques Components of the Load Torque T L Some Common Load Torques Classification of Load Torques Mechanical Gears Summary Problems References Analyses and Designs Related to Renewable Energy Systems Introduction Electric Machine Systems/Drives Centralized (Conventional) Power System Distribution System Analysis with/without (Fundamental or Displacement) Power-Factor Compensation Design of Renewable Storage Power Plants Photovoltaic Power Plants Wind Power Plants Fuel Cell Systems Smart Grids Ferroresonance in Power Transformers The Nonlinear Electric and Magnetic Circuits of Power Transformer Understanding Ferroresonance Power System Conditions Contributive to Ferroresonance Ways to Avoid Ferroresonance Summary References Index

Wireless Networks. Series Editor Xuemin Sherman Shen University of Waterloo Waterloo, Ontario, Canada

Wireless Networks. Series Editor Xuemin Sherman Shen University of Waterloo Waterloo, Ontario, Canada Wireless Networks Series Editor Xuemin Sherman Shen University of Waterloo Waterloo, Ontario, Canada More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/14180 Miao Wang Ran Zhang Xuemin