Report Zambia: Energy and ICT access project cross-sectoral links with health and education

Transcription

1 Report Zambia: Energy and ICT access project cross-sectoral links with health and education

2 ECON-Report no , Project no THP/iah, mda, 23 September 2004 Restricted Zambia: Energy and ICT access project cross-sectoral links with health and education Commissioned by the World Bank ECON Analyse AS Postboks 5, 0051 Oslo. Tlf: , Faks: ,

3 Table of Contents: EXECUTIVE SUMMARY INTRODUCTION SOCIAL AND POLICY CONTEXT Health system Public health facilities in Zambia Health financing and procurement Infrastructure and maintenance Education system Education facilities Education financing and procurement Infrastructure and maintenance STATUS ASSESSMENT Energy services to rural facilities Energy for communication Energy for vaccine refrigeration Energy for lighting Energy for water supply ICT services to rural facilities General communications services Access to computers FINDINGS AND KEY ISSUES Energy supply Information barriers Financing barriers Institutional barriers Local infrastructure and maintenance regimes Ownership Tendering and procurement processes Social capital Sub-optimal PV system design ICT services HF Radio PSTN & WLL GSM mobile services xx wireless networks WAY satellite access Computers Community-driven projects in Zambia RECOMMENDATIONS Energy needs and solutions Solar electricity energy services for health facilities Solar electricity energy services for education Overcoming information barriers Financing barriers...53

4 5.1.5 Institutional issues Local infrastructure and maintenance regimes Ownership Tendering and procurement processes PV system design ICT needs and solutions ICT services for health facilities ICT services for educational facilities ANNEX A: SOCIAL AND POLICY CONTEXT Health Education Links between poverty, education and health (HIV/AIDS) Energy Institutional structure Communications industry overview ANNEX B: MODEL DESIGN System options Discrete versus integrated systems Optimal system configuration in Zambia Description of options Sizing approach Solar radiation data Recommended sizing approach Comparison with Ah method Standards Overall Quality Assurance Project specifications Technical specifications Comments on standards and technical specifications for system components Code of practice for installation ANNEX C: TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS Purpose and use of these specifications Equipment specifications Health Post Rural Health Centre Basic school Specifications for maintenance Overview Rationale Overall maintenance regime Maintenance tasks Maintenance log sheet Tools and equipment ANNEX D: FIELDWORK AND FIELDWORK SITES Nyimba district hospital St Francis Mission Hospital Mwasemphangwe zonal rural health centre Mwasemphangwe schemes rural health centre Mkanda rural health centre...126

5 9.6 Nsadzu rural health centre Vulamkoko zonal rural health centre Katondo rural health post Mwasemphangwe basic school Mwala basic school Nyimba secondary school Chizongwe secondary technical school Chipata teacher training college and teacher resource centre Muthanjala Chinjala Women's Multi-purpose Co-operative Society (Women with a Vision)...130

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7 Executive Summary Background The proposed Increased Access to Electricity and Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Services (IAES) project aims to provide investment and technical assistance/capacity building support to facilitate access to electricity and ICT services in rural and peri-urban areas in such as way as to maximize the development impact. One of the focal areas of the project is to realise the benefits from cross-sectoral linkages in the health and educational sectors relating to both energy and ICT services. ECON Analysis, AGAMA Energy, and Teleplan have been tasked with an assignment to identify the most appropriate form of intervention under the IAES project in the health and educational sectors. The intention is to support the design of a program to improve energy and ICT services to rural schools and clinics, in a way that provides an appropriate level of service; that promotes sustainable service provision; and lays the basis for replication. A specific output from the project has been the specification of photovoltaic (PV)-powered energy and ICT systems for different categories of rural schools and health facilities. The work entailed fieldwork in the Eastern Province, as well as consultation with affected Ministries and stakeholders in the capital city. Conclusions and recommendations A general conclusion is that current procurement procedures and the institutional and organisational set-up, especially for maintenance, are insufficient for ensuring sustainable PV and ICT solutions for rural health facilities and schools in Zambia. The solar PV systems at the facilities visited presented large variations in status, type of components, system design, and type of installation whereas the HF radio systems appeared more standardised. Both solar PV systems and HF radios were underutilised with lots of spare capacity in the systems. In addition, the evaluation of installed PV systems at schools and health facilities revealed that there were problems with user education and that maintenance was in general neglected. Interviews with representatives from the MoH, CBoH, and MoE indicated that these observations were valid also for the rest of the country. However, at present there is no compiled information on the number and status of installed solar-pv and ICT systems in the country, and hence it is imperative that such a survey is undertaken. It is critical that energy service provision through PV technology should be undertaken in a way so as to support the establishment of a commercially 1

8 sustainable PV supply and maintenance industry. Particular challenges in achieving this objective include: Overcoming the lack of familiarity with PV technology; Addressing the financing barriers faced by many users, including publicsector institutions; Reducing the cost of the technology by addressing regulations, monopolies and import tariffs; Building local infrastructure for installation and maintenance; Creating a sense of ownership by the beneficiary; Utilising tendering and procurement processes that facilitate participation by local private sector actors; Seeking to build long-term relationships between actors that strengthen trust and commitment; Maintenance and customer service barriers: Building customer confidence through a focus on maintenance and customer service systems. Energy needs and supply solutions for health and educational facilities In Zambia, the benefits of simplicity for supply, installation and maintenance and lower cost of smaller discrete systems either DC or DC+AC preclude the use of larger integrated multi-use AC systems, and hence we recommend that multiple discrete solar PV systems be adopted as a standard system configuration in Zambia. In the health sector, this implies dedicated discrete DC PV systems be adopted for the essential loads of HF radio communications and vaccine refrigeration whereas discrete DC systems which combine DC+AC supply be adopted to provide the non-essential energy service in the clinic and staff housing. In the case of rural schools, the recommendation implies one system discrete DC+AC system per building with sizes of system dictated by the use of the building, such as a 1 2 classroom block or a 1 3 classroom block. The tables below summarise our findings and recommendations relating to energy services at schools and clinics. The recommended technical solutions are described in Table A and detailed more specifically in Annex C. 2

9 Table A System descriptions Application Reference Description Dedicated DC applications Type X/1 12 V DC system; Wh/day or V for HF radio only. The charge controller for these systems must be rated for A on the load side to ensure that the radio can draw up to 30 A through the controller when transmitting Type X/2 12 V DC system; 1050 Wh/day or V for radio and vaccine refrigerator (in compliance with WHO/UNICEF specifications) Type X/3 12 V DC system; 200 Wh/day or V for 12 V DC lighting using a mix of 11 W and 18 W pendant-mounted luminaires. DC+AC system applications Type X/4 Type Y/1 Type Y/2 Type Y/3 12 V DC system; Wh/day or V for 12 V DC lighting using a mix of 11 W and 18 W pendant-mounted luminaires. 12 V DC and 220 V AC system; V DC and 220 V; for 2 and 3-bedroomed staff houses at rural health post 12 V DC and 220 V AC system; V DC and 220 V; for 1 x 2 class room blocks or for 3- bedroomed staff houses at schools 12 V DC and 220 V AC system; V DC and 220 V; for 1 x 3 class room blocks Table B Energy needs and supply solutions at rural health facilities Facility Need Solution Reliability Typical Rural Health Post Rural health centre Communication Vaccine refrigeration Lighting TV / lighting staff home(s) Communication Type X/1 system supplying 230 Wh/day of 12 V DC power for an HF radio Not applicable Type X/3 system supplying 110 Wh/day of 12 V DC power for: lux of general indoor lighting for 2-3 hrs/day depending on the room Type Y/1 system supplying 440 Wh/day for a combination of 12 V DC power for : lux of general indoor lighting for 3-4 hrs/day and 220 V AC power for: TV / radio for 3 5 hrs day Type X/1 system supplying 230 Wh/day of 12 V DC power for an HF radio 0.5% LOPP 5% LOPP 5% LOPP 0.5% LOPP 3

10 Vaccine refrigeration Type X/2 PV system supplying 1050 Wh/day of 12 V DC power for an Electrolux 50 DC refrigerator 0.5% LOPP Lighting Mix of Type X/3 and X/4 systems supplying Wh/day of 12 V DC power for: 5% LOPP lux of general indoor lighting for 2-3 hrs/day depending on the room TV / lighting nurses homes Type Y/1 system supplying 440 Wh/day for a combination of 12 V DC power for : 5% LOPP lux of general indoor lighting for 3-4 hrs/day and 220 V AC power for: TV / radio for 3 5 hrs day Rural zonal health centre As per rural health centre but with additional lighting Type X/1 for communication; X/2 for vaccine refrigeration and X/3 or X/4 PV systems for lighting; Type Y1 systems for lighting and plugs in staff houses 0.5 % LOPP for communication & vaccine refrigeration; 5 % LOPP for lighting District hospital Diverse needs Grid supply or diesel/hydro/hybrid mini-grid Some UPS capacity for communication and vaccine refrigeration Mission hospital Diverse needs Grid supply or diesel/hydro/hybrid mini-grid Some UPS capacity for communication and vaccine refrigeration Table C Energy needs and supply solutions at educational facilities Facility Need Solution Reliability/ comments Basic schools Lighting and TV/VCR for classrooms Type Y/2 or Y/3 systems providing 638 or 882 Wh/day of power for 12 V DC lighting at 50 lux in classrooms and office(s) and one 220 V AC outlet LOPP of 5%; Type and number of systems depending on number of classrooms and staff houses 4

11 Secondary schools Boarding schools Teacher training colleges Lighting and entertainment for staff houses Lighting and TV/VCR for classrooms Lighting and entertainment for staff houses Lighting and TV/VCR for classrooms Lighting and entertainment for staff houses Not applicable for solar PV Type Y/2 system supplying 644 Wh/day for a combination of 12 V DC power for lux of general indoor lighting for 3-4 hrs/day and 220 V AC power for TV / radio for 3 5 hrs day Type Y/2 or Y/3 systems providing 638 or 882 Wh/day of power for 12 V DC lighting at 50 lux in classrooms and office(s) and one 220 V AC outlet Type Y/2 system supplying 644 Wh/day for a combination of 12 V DC power for lux of general indoor lighting for 3-4 hrs/day and 220 V AC power for TV / radio for 3 5 hrs day Type Y/2 or Y/3 systems providing 638 or 882 Wh/day of power for 12 V DC lighting at 50 lux in classrooms and office(s) and one 220 V AC outlet Type Y/2 system supplying 644 Wh/day for a combination of 12 V DC power for lux of general indoor lighting for 3-4 hrs/day and 220 V AC power for TV / radio for 3 5 hrs day LOPP of 5%; Type and number of systems depending on number of classrooms and staff houses LOPP of 5%; Type and number of systems depending on number of classrooms, dormitories and staff houses. ICT needs and supply solutions at rural health and educational facilities The tables below summarise our recommendations relating to ICT requirements and supply solutions for rural health and educational facilities. 5

12 Table D ICT needs and supply solutions at health facilities Facility Need Solution Reliability/security Rural health post Emergency HF Radio High communication Rural health centre Rural zonal health centre District hospital Mission hospital Non-emergency communications All of the above in addition: Patient information system Send reports and messages Develop budgets and reports Access to digital resources As per Rural Health Centre HF radio, GSM (sms or voice), PSTN Database All of the above in addition: Intra-hospital voice communications Payroll & accounting Telemedicine (not real time) Realtime telemedicine Word processing, spreadsheet www, , newsgroups Campus-wide telephony system Payroll & accounting software Video conferencing, high speed data access All of the needs from district hospital Donor communications , web, SMS, voice Low High Low Low Low Medium Medium High High Low Table E ICT needs and supply solutions at educational facilities Facility Need Solution Reliability/security Basic schools Secondary schools Voice communications Access to educational material Communicating with other students and teachers GSM, PSTN, HF Radio www, , newsgroups www, , newsgroups All of the needs from basic schools in addition: Teaching computer skills PC, software, www & Boarding schools Voice communications GSM, PSTN, HF Radio Medium Low Low High 6

13 Finally, the table below summarises the costs for various packages for a typical Rural Health Post, a typical Rural Health Centre, and a typical Basic School. All cost details can be found in Annex C: Technical specifications Table F Indicative costs for typical institutions HEALTH POST X/3 lighting system (11 and 18W DC compact fluorescent lamps) Materials b Costs (USD) a Transport and Training Subtotal installation c Communication radio a Y/1 system for a 2-bedroomed staff house (DC lighting + 2 AC plug points) TOTAL with 1 staff house RURAL HEALTH CENTRE Three X/3 lighting system (11 and 18 W DC compact fluorescent lamps) X/4 lighting system (11 and 18 W DC compact fluorescent lamps) Communication radio system d Vaccine refrigeration system e Y/1 system for a 3-bedroomed staff house (DC lighting + 2 AC plug points) TOTAL excluding staff houses TOTAL with 5 staff houses BASIC SCHOOL Y/2 system for a 1 2 class room block (11 and 18 W DC compact fluorescent lamps and 1 AC plug point) Y/3 system for a 1 3 class room block (11 and 18 W DC compact fluorescent lamps and 1 AC plug point) Y/2 system for a 3-bedroomed staff house (DC lighting + 2 AC plug points) TOTAL excluding staff houses TOTAL with 5 staff houses a: These figures are indicative and are based on market prices and exchange rates in Zambia in June They will need to be refined during detailed programme design and implementation. b: Including PV system, lights, wiring, battery, user manuals, O&M manuals and spares c: Estimates for installation and training are based on a contractor having a certain minimum number of installations in a region - one off installations will be more expensive. d: The figures for the communication radio excludes the radio itself, see Table 3.8 for details. e: The figures for the vaccine refrigeration system excludes the refrigerator. 7

14 Institutional recommendations It is important that the service provision be viewed not just in terms of procurement and installation, but also in terms of long-term maintenance and service provision. The procurement of equipment and installation should be closely co-ordinated with a plan to ensure long-term reliability. In this context, funding arrangements need to be secured that cover both initial costs and longertime maintenance expenses. Currently, procurement of supply and installation contracts is associated with a multitude of problems including the absence of standardised project and technical specifications for solar PV systems. There is significant scope for improvement and key areas for improvement include: More concise and simpler tender documentation to facilitate/minimise tendering and evaluation overheads The project documentation and technical specifications for implementation of solar PV programmes should focus on standardisation of system configurations; use of high quality materials; installation codes of practice; and acceptance testing procedures. For simplicity and for ensuring responsibility for the overall process we recommend a bundled contract covering equipment supply, installation, training and maintenance. This will place a high level of responsibility on the contractor to supply and install at a high level of quality and then to establish a decentralised maintenance capacity to ensure effective operation against contractual terms of the systems for a period of up to three years. Monitoring and evaluation is critical to ensure the quality of the investments in an energy programme. Furthermore, the monitoring and evaluation is more important at the outset of the programme to allow adjustments and improvements as the implementation is rolled out. The overall responsibility for monitoring and evaluation of the programme could be carried out successfully by a suitable national body such as the Energy Regulation Board. 8

15 Nomenclature / Glossary A AC AFFL BOTT CAZ CBoH CHAZ CSO BESSIP DC DoE ECCED EPI ERB ESCO HF HIPC IEEE ICT IEA IEC ISP JICA LAN LOPP MEWD MoE MoH MPU NEP NGO NHS Amperes, the unit of electrical current Alternating current Above finished floor level Build-operate-train-transfer Communications Authority of Zambia Central Board of Health Churches Health Association of Zambia Central Statistical Office Basic Education Sub-Sector Investment Programme Direct current Department of Energy Early Childhood Care, Education and Development Expanded Program on Immunisation Energy Regulation Board Energy Service Company High frequency Heavily Indebted Poor Country The IEEE (Eye-triple-E) or the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. Information and Communication Technology International Energy Agency International Electrotechnical Commission Internet Service Provider Japan International Cooperation Agency Local Area Network Loss of power probability Ministry of Energy and Water Development Ministry of Education Ministry of Health Microprojects Unit National Energy Policy Non-Governmental Organisation National Health Services Act 9

16 PRSP PSTN PU PV REF SADC SHS Sida SMS UNICEF UPS V W VHF WHO WLAN WLL Wp ZAMSIF ZBS ZESCO ZFDS ZNBC ZNTB Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper Public Switched Telephone Network Procurement Unit in the Ministry of Health Photovoltaic Rural Electrification Fund Southern African Development Community Solar Home System Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency Short Message Service United Nations Children s Fund Uninterrupted Power Supply Voltage, the unit of electrical potential Watt, the unit of power Very High Frequency World Health Organization Wireless Local Area Network Wireless Local Loop Watt peak, the standard manner of rating solar PV modules and arrays Zambia Social Investment Fund Zambia Bureau of Standards Zambian Electricity Supply Commission Zambia Flying Doctor Service Zambian National Broadcasting Corporation Zambia National Tender Board 10

17 1 Introduction The present assignment is part of the World Bank supported Increased Access to Electricity and Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Services (IAES) project. The objective of the proposed IAES project is to provide for investment and technical assistance/capacity building activities to enable scale-up of access to electricity and ICT services in rural and peri-urban areas to maximize development impact: (a) income generation by small and medium sized enterprises through productive uses (farm and non-farm), and (b) improved quality of life emphasizing effectiveness of social services (such as health and education) and administrative service. 1 The underlying idea of the present assignment, which deals with the cross-sectoral linkages with health and education, is that energy and ICT provision can, besides the direct benefits of rural electrification, have additional leverage if rural energy programs are designed in such a way that the needs of others sectors are also taken into consideration. In a sparsely populated and poor country like Zambia, focusing on important services like rural health facilities and schools, implies that it is possible to provide energy services to areas where the load is otherwise to low for the provision too be economically sound. In addition, by focusing on aggregate demand and high-impact locations incentives are created for establishment and location of local PV companies as well as other small-scale companies. Hence, by providing a crucial service, energy, to facilities vital for improving the livelihoods of the rural population and for reducing poverty, developmental spin-offs are created and consumption and production linkages are stimulated. Hence, the present assignment focuses on sustainable solutions in a few high impact locations, e.g. farm blocks, missions, trading posts and peri-urban townships. The energy option that is part of the present project is solar photovoltaic (PV) systems and selected appliances required for PV systems, e.g. solar PV fridges, high frequency (HF) radio systems, and PV water pumps. The project also seeks to identify and target the synergies between energy and ICT services. These synergies operate within at least three distinct levels: Firstly, modern energy services support the provision of ICT systems, and vice versa. Communication systems allow better operation and management 1 The World Bank ZAMBIA: Increased Access to Electricity & ICT Services (IAES) Project Preparation Arrangements and Schedule Final Aide-Memoire, April 14,

18 of energy supply technologies and services. Similarly, ICT systems require reliable local energy services. Secondly, the combination of energy and ICT infrastructure allow new services to be utilized. Obvious examples include internet-access computers and fax machines, as well as internet-based learning systems, cold chain procedures that rely on regular communication. By having access to both reliable modern energy and communications, the constraints that small businesses and public facilities face are dramatically alleviated. Thirdly, the synergies between energy and communication services promote usage of both. Not only does this increase the benefits that the services deliver, but it also stimulates growth and improvement of services, and provides a different basis for attracting private capital and skills into service delivery. In addition, the solutions are to be private sector led, preferably at the local level, and contribute to building up the solar PV market in Zambia. Ensuring that equipment specifications comply with international standards is an important part of this as are systems for operations and maintenance and capacity building. As part of the present assignment fieldwork in the Eastern Province of Zambia was conducted between 19 and 26 May During the March/April World Bank mission to Zambia, Chipata was chosen as the base location for the fieldwork. Analyses and discussions in the present report are based on interviews with key representatives from government and the private sector as well as on the findings from the fieldwork. The project team is aware of the limitations the chosen fieldwork location implies for generalization to the rest of Zambia. Nevertheless, after discussion with ministry representatives it has become apparent that differences between provinces have more to do with reliability of service solutions, security of supply and access to credit and input markets than the technical solutions per se, which somewhat decreases the potential adverse effects of a limited fieldwork exercise. However, in order to get a broader and more varied picture a fieldtrip to the Western Province, i.e. the least developed province would be useful. This province is practically unreachable six months of the year, which creates different demands for e.g. radio communication and security of power supply for vaccine refrigeration. 12

19 2 Social and policy context In rural areas, health and education facilities provide far more wide reaching services to the surrounding population than is commonly acknowledged. For example, the facilities act as meeting points where information is shared, communication with relatives (especially for funerals) at far off places can be done via radios accessible at these facilities, schools serve as communal meeting points where weddings, religious meetings, elections, and polls take place. Thus, making energy services available to these facilities will also have an important impact on the possibilities for overall poverty reduction since the positive externalities and hence the social benefits of a healthier and more educated population are significant. A brief description of the health and education systems is presented below for a comprehensive review of the social and policy context see Annex A: Social and policy context. 2.1 Health system According to the National health Strategic Plan , the Government of Zambia assumed responsibility for health facilities at independence in Prior to independence, the health facilities had been operated by the colonial Government and Christian missionaries. Since 1991, decentralization efforts have been made and the district has been the key intervention level and the National Health Services Act (NHS) of 1995 gives way to the whole changes in management culture. The new arrangements imply the Ministry of Health (MoH) is supposed to be responsible for policy guidance and strategic planning, the Central Board of Health (CBoH), through the Provincial Health Offices and other structures, is responsible for translation and implementation of Government health policies. However, according to the National Health Strategic Plan Mid Term Review Report (2004), the full separation of the roles and responsibilities of the CBoH and the MoH has not yet been completed and consequently there are still overlaps in functions Public health facilities in Zambia The various types of public health facilities present in Zambia can be found in Table

20 Table 2.1 Health facilities in Zambia Type Description Health Posts Health Posts are intended to cater for a population of 500 households (3,500 people) in rural areas and 1000 households (7000 people) in the urban setting, or to be set up within 5km radius for sparsely populated areas. Health Centres The two types of health centres in the restructured health care system include: (1) The urban health centres which are intended to serve a catchment population of 30,000 to 50,000 people; and (2) Rural health centres, serving a catchment area of a 29-kilometre radius, or a population of 10,000. District and First Level Referral Institutions General Hospitals Central Hospitals Source: National Health Strategic Plan These are to be found in most, but not all, of the 72 districts. They are intended to serve a population of 80, ,000 with medical, surgical, obstetric and diagnostic services and with all clinical services to support health centre (and health post) referrals. These are 2nd level institutions at provincial level and are intended to cater for a catchment area of between 200, ,000 people, with services in internal medicine, general surgery, paediatrics, obstetrics and gynaecology, dental, psychiatry and intensive care services. These hospitals are also intended to act as a referral for the first level institutions, including the provision of technical back up and training functions. These are for catchment population of 800,000 and above, and have sub-specializations in internal medicine, surgery, paediatrics, obstetrics, gynaecology, intensive care, psychiatry, training and research. In addition to the facilities listed in Table 2.1, the following facilities exist in Zambia 2 : Mine hospitals and centres, which are almost exclusively located on the Copperbelt. Mission hospitals and centres are commonly located in the rural areas and poor districts of the country. They provide as much as 30 percent of the care in the rural areas. It is the Churches Health Association of Zambia (CHAZ) that coordinates their work. The CBoH commissions and funds their services through the district basket fund and the civil servants are on the government bill. When it comes to procurement it is the CBoH that is responsible for these institutions. The Ministry of Defence runs facilities that provide health care services to its staff. In Zambia, for-profit hospitals are relatively few and those that exist are urban based. Private centres and practitioners are also largely urban based though slightly more dispersed. 2 National Health Strategic Plan

21 A number of local and international NGOs are active in the health sector, more especially in the fields of reproductive health, health education and HIV/AIDS. Traditional healers in the country are organised in two main groups (represented by the Traditional Healers Association of Zambia and the National Council of Ng angas). There is an official register, with estimates ranging between 20,000 and 30,000 practitioners. In total, the number and types of health facilities in the various provinces are presented in Table 2.2 Types and number of health facilities in Zambia Type of facility Rural Health Centre Urban Health Centre Ind. Rural Health Centre Ind. Urban Health Centre District Hospital Central Hospital General Hospital Mission Hospital Spec. Hospital Ind. Hospital Other hospital (defence) Copperbelt Province Central West. South NWest. North Lusaka Luapula Eastern Tot Total Source: Central Board of Health and Ministry of Health Health financing and procurement Overall, Government health expenditure per capita in Zambia is approximately USD 10 and the majority of health expenditure is recurrent spending and capital 15

22 expenditure has been negligible. 3 In addition to the already low spending on health, the demand for health care has been increasing due to a growing population, declining health status as reflected through the growth in the HIV/AIDS epidemic, and increased maternal and infant mortality. Currently, the life expectancy at birth is 33 years the lowest in the world. 4 Hence, more resources are needed but full cost recovery, with the patient bearing the full cost of care outside the basic health care package is not feasible given the high levels of poverty. The following health services are currently offered for free in Zambia. Table 2.3 Free health care in Zambia Free medical services Treatment of chronic illnesses such as TB, HIV/AIDS Treatment of STDs Treatment of epidemics such as cholera Ante natal, delivery and post natal Family planning Emergency cases such as accidents Treatment free of charge Children under the age of five years People over the age of 65 years People who cannot afford to pay (with evidence from the Social Welfare or others) Public procurement is based on Tender Board Act Number 30 of 1982, which gives power to the Zambia National Tender Board (ZNTB) to regulate, control and consolidate the law relating to tenders on public procurement. This law is complemented by Statutory Instrument number 116 of 1997 (ZNTB, 1997) which details operational modalities as well as the ZNTB Procurement Guidelines Part One to Six (ZNTB, 1997) containing detailed procurement procedures and the framework for setting up of ministerial units (approved by the ZNTB) allowed to float tenders. As a result of this procurement reform, MoH set up a Procurement Unit in 1995.The MoH Procurement Unit (PU) has the official responsibility for central level procurement. Special procurement units and tender committees have also been set up at provincial hospitals, district hospitals and at the District Health Offices. 5 The CBoH has also a procurement unit, but it is not yet fully staffed. However, despite these units being in place there are a number of problems with procurements. For example, there is inadequate capacity for handling procurement of at all levels, and especially in the case of PV systems, there are no procedures for maintenance arrangements and contracts, and corruption is a real problem. In addition, there is insufficient coordination with procurements that are being carried out under the Zambia Social Investment Fund (ZAMSIF) and Microprojects Unit (MPU.) Infrastructure and maintenance Due to financial constraints, physical infrastructure and equipment have deteriorated to a stage where urgent repairs are required if the institutions are still to function effectively. Several reviews have pointed at the lack of maintenance, 3 National Health Strategic Plan UNICEF, The State of the World s Children, National Health Strategic Plan

23 over-straining of existing facilities, most equipment being old and obsolete. However, The MoH/CBoH has developed new standards and norms, based on the package of care, for the basic physical infrastructure for health posts and rural health centres, see Table 6.5. In addition, standardized technical specifications for basic medical equipment have been developed. 6 Currently, individual facilities are responsible for the repair and maintenance of their infrastructure. The MoH/CBoH has no maintenance procedures and policy guidelines to supervise institutions; hence there is no motivation for allocation of funds for maintenance and repair. However, the CBoH has system where technicians travel around during the first year with the purpose of replacing or fixing faulty equipment. 2.2 Education system At the central level it is the Ministry of Education (MoE) that has the overall responsibility for policy, planning and implementation. The Ministry has representation at both provincial and district levels. A restructuring and decentralisation process of the Ministry is currently being carried out in order to improve efficiency and to curb corruption. The new structure will consist of five directorates, which report to the Permanent secretary, see Figure 2.1. Figure 2.1 Ministry of Education Permanent Secretary Planning and Information Standards and Curriculum Development Distance Education Teacher Education and Specialised Services Human Resources and Administration Accounts Unit Audit Purchasing and Supplies Unit Source: Ministry of Education Strategic Plan In addition to the restructuring, the decentralisation process has led to the establishment of a number of boards; i.e. district education boards and high school and college education boards. At the district level the structures are divided between the district education board (education, education facilities, staffing, and enrolment) and the district education standards office (monitoring and evaluating 6 National Health Strategic Plan

24 performance of schools and the education boards). The responsibilities of the provincial education office are to co-ordinate and implement district programmes and activities, to monitor and supervise policy and standards, and to ensure accountability. However, this system is currently not working in the way it is intended to and there is still a lot to accomplish in this area Education facilities The education facilities in Zambia consist of day schools and boarding schools. For the present project the focus has been on basic schools, secondary/high schools, teacher training colleges, and boarding schools. Table 2.4 Number of basic and high schools in Zambia Type of school Num. of schools Grid electric ity Solar Gene rator No electricity Number of pupils Num. of teachers Rural Basic High Subtotal Urban Basic High Subtotal Total Source: Ministry of Education In addition to the figures given Table 2.4 in there are 14 teacher-training colleges and 40 boarding schools in Zambia Education financing and procurement The Free Middle Basic Education policy (Grades 1-7) was announced in February 2002 by the President of Zambia. All user fees have been abolished from Grades 1-7 and uniforms are not compulsory. Funds may be raised through various activities, but no child can be denied access to school on account of affordability. 7 As for procurement, the Strategic Plan stipulates that the MoE will decentralise procurement over the next three years. It is also recognised that institutional capacity at all levels needs to be strengthened first. However, judging from the current situation it is unlikely that a functioning procurement system will be in place in Infrastructure and maintenance According to data provided by the MoE and the MoE s Strategic Plan , the infrastructure facilities for basic schools are insufficient. There is a shortfall of 7 Ministry of Education Strategic Plan

25 8,500 classrooms and there is a backlog in the provision of teachers houses of about 600 units. As much as 60 percent of the current stock of 21,000 classrooms and 70 percent of the teachers houses needs to be rehabilitated, 20 percent of the classrooms and 30 per cent of the houses have major defects. In addition, 90 percent of the rural basic schools have no electricity at all. A general problem is that service contracts rarely accompany supply of equipment and if maintenance is needed the district office is contacted and then people travel from Lusaka. There are warranties for all equipment but this information is not communicated well enough to the districts. The MoE does currently not have a system with travelling technicians as the CBoH has. 19

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27 3 Status assessment This status assessment is based on fieldwork conducted between th May 2004 in the Eastern Province, Zambia, including visits to fourteen rural health and education facilities (see Annex D: Fieldwork and fieldwork sites). A general conclusion is that current procurement procedures and the institutional and organisational set-up, especially for maintenance, are insufficient for ensuring sustainable PV and ICT solutions for rural health facilities and schools. The solar PV systems at the facilities visited presented large variations in status, type of components, system design, and type of installation whereas the HF radio systems appeared more standardised. Both solar PV systems and HF radios were underutilised with lots of spare capacity in the systems. In addition, the evaluation of installed PV systems at schools and health facilities revealed that there were problems with user education and that maintenance was in general neglected. Interviews with representatives from the MoH, CBoH, and MoE indicated that these observations were valid also for the rest of the country. However, at present there is no compiled information on the number and status of installed solar-pv and ICT systems in the country, and hence it is imperative that such a survey is undertaken. A more comprehensive status assessment is presented below. 3.1 Energy services to rural facilities Table 3.1 summarises the status of the energy service systems, which were encountered at health facilities during the field visits. The largest systems encountered during the fieldwork were 300Wp systems for vaccine refrigeration at Mwasemphangwe Zonal Health Centre, and for water pumping at Nsadzu and Vulamkoko. For many of the rural health facilities, the solar PV systems are functioning sub-optimally. In some instances, there has been a deliberate separation of the various solar systems for lighting, refrigeration, and radio communication for security reasons. However, in some cases it is clear that the separation of the various systems is largely incidental and the result of different donors having different objectives and a lack of donor harmonisation. The result of the latter is that there are several facilities where for example the solar fridge has stopped working and the solar panels sit idle instead of being used for other purposes, e.g. lighting. Table 3.2 presents the status of three privately owned solar home systems (SHS), which had been purchased by individual teachers. Additional data was obtained from meetings, especially regarding some of the PV systems, which have been 21

28 installed at Basic Schools under the Basic Education Sub-Sector Investment Programme (BESSIP). An overriding observation arising from the site visits are the levels of underutilisation of the installed generation and storage capacity as a consequence of, firstly, inadequate maintenance, and secondly, a general lack of understanding by the staff at the facilities of the capacities and limitations of the solar PV systems installed at their respective facilities. Overall, only 44 percent of the potential energy capacity of 15.3 kwh/day of the systems was available for use. This represents a capital investment of approximately USD which is simply not available. In most cases, the full capacity of the systems could be reestablished by relatively simple maintenance and battery replacements. This highlights the necessity of a systematic maintenance regime to underpin capital investments in solar PV for rural electrification. 22

29 Table 3.1 Summary of the status of solar PV systems at health facilities visited as part of fieldwork Name of facility Mwasemphangwe Zonal Health Centre Mwasemphangwe Schemes Health Centre Mkanda Health Centre Nsadzu Rural Health Centre Katondo Rural Health Post Year of installation Radio communication Vaccine refrigeration Lighting centre 50 Wp/100 Ah PV system no charge controller, battery box, terminals, fuse, documentation 100 Ah RR2 battery replaced with 50 Ah RR1 300 Wp NAPS PV Power Pack system with Electrolux 50 DC chest fridge well engineered and installed; array facing NNWest; no documentation None 90%+ underutilised capacity for AC lighting in AC PV system for microscope 50 Wp array system Steca SolSum 6.6X charge controller, locked wooden battery box, terminals, no documentation 200 Wp/400 Ah PV system, Steca Sigma charge controller, 4x 100 Ah batteries, Minus 40 upright fridge no battery fuse, no documentation 50 Wp/200 Ah PV array system charge controller, locked wooden battery box, terminals, no documentation 50 Wp/100 Ah PV system no details 200 Wp/400 Ah PV system, 2x 200 Ah batteries, BP Solar VR50 fridge no charge controller, no battery fuse, no documentation Three 50 Wp/100 Ah PV array systems Power People charge controller, high level battery mounting, no documentation 50 Wp array system Steca SolSum 6.6X charge controller, no documentation Paraffin - Electrolux 42 EK refrigerator Tropical Freezer solar refrigerator did not work 120 Wp PV system idle Three 50 Wp/200 and 100Ah PV array systems Power People charge controller, high level battery mounting, no documentation not working, waiting for solar batteries 50 Wp / 100 Ah PV system Steca SolSum 6.6X charge controller, no battery box, no documentation Paraffin Electrolux 42 EK refrigerator One 50 Wp/100 Ah PV array system, MorningStar charge controller 100 Ah RR2 battery replaced by a 50 Ah RR1 battery, array facing West, no battery connectors, no battery fuse, no documentation Vulamkoko Rural Health Centre 50 Wp array system Logic Green Energy MR-6 charge controller, locked wooden battery box, terminals, no documentation Paraffin Tropical Freezer solar refrigerator did not work 150 Wp PV system idle Three 50 Wp/200 and 100Ah PV array systems Power People charge controller, high level battery mounting, no documentation not working, waiting for solar batteries 23

30 Name of facility Lighting nurses homes Mwasemphangwe Zonal Health Centre Mwasemphangwe Schemes Health Centre Mkanda Health Centre Nsadzu Rural Health Centre Katondo Rural Health Post None None None none One 50 Wp/100 Ah PV array system, MorningStar charge controller 100 Ah RR2 battery replaced by a 50 Ah RR1 battery, array facing East, no battery connectors, no battery fuse, no documentation Lighting portable None none None Solar lantern None Other Water pumping Microscope - 50 Wp AC PV system; 100 Ah Delco 2000 battery; Xantrex V inverter installed 2004; no charge controller or documentation under-utilised Handpump, tender has been issued for a PV water pumping system Vulamkoko Rural Health Centre None none None none None None Well, handpump All Power 300 Wp submersible borehole pump PV modules and controller stolen All Power 300 Wp submersible borehole pump motor seized handpump All Power 300 Wp submersible borehole pump working well; modules had been stolen but were recovered and reinstalled. 24

31 For many of the rural health facilities, the solar PV systems are functioning sub-optimally. In some instances, there has been a deliberate separation of the various solar systems for lighting, refrigeration, and radio communication for security reasons. However, in some cases it is clear that the separation of the various systems is largely incidental and the result of different donors having different objectives and a lack of donor harmonisation. The result of the latter is that there are several facilities where for example the solar fridge has stopped working and the solar panels sit idle instead of being used for other purposes, e.g. lighting. Table 3.2 Summary of facilities at teachers homes Name of facility Mwasemphangwe Basic School Mwala Basic School Women s Co-op Basic School Year of installation /2 unknown Lighting and TV teachers homes 50 Wp / 100 Ah 12 V Solar Home System with 300 VA modified square wave inverter; privately purchased; 3 battery replacements; 12 V DC compact fluorescent lamps 12 Wp amorphous/ 50 Ah 12 V SHS with 300 VA modified square wave inverter; privately purchased; AC compact fluorescent lamps 2 x 12 Wp amorphous / 50 Ah 12 V all AC SHS; privately purchased; AC compact fluorescent lamps, radio and TV It is apparent that at least some teachers are both willing and able to invest in their own solar home system (SHS). The 12 V DC systems all provided some AC capacity to supply radio, TV and in two cases lighting. However, for the facilities visited there was a marked difference between health and education staff in this regard we did not observe any privately owned SHS for health staff Energy for communication Energy service supply for communication services are predominantly solar PV systems providing between Wh/day of DC electricity for high-frequency radio transceivers. Typically, these systems comprise the following: 25

32 Table 3.3 Typical energy system for communications System component Rating Comments System configuration Discrete 12 V DC solar PV system providing a dedicated supply for the appliance Typically installed by Zambian Flying Doctor Service. Solar PV module Wp Crystalline modules; mostly oriented correctly; some dusty Array mounting structure Galvanized steel Orientation mostly due North; shallow angles of tilt approx o to horizontal Charge controller (missing in some cases) Battery Battery box 6-10 A Steca Solsum 6.6X or 8.8X; Morningstar SunSaver 10; Logic Green Energy MR C20 rate; flooded electrolyte Lockable wooden box; high level, wall-mounted brackets Exide RR1 or RR2; Only one system had a battery fuse Few systems had battery boxes Wiring, switchgear 2.5 mm multi-strand copper Battery connections inadequate in some cases Battery fuse Only one system had a battery fuse Users experience with the solar PV systems for communication has been perceived to be largely satisfactory. The main complaint was that, in some cases, the battery was worn out or had been replaced with a non-solar battery. There were at least two instances of health staff switching off the radio either due to noises from the radio or uncertainty of the energy supply capacity of the solar PV system. Some systems had no charge controller and in cases where charge controllers had been installed, the radios were generally operated directly from the battery, by-passing the controller. This is likely to lead to the batteries being over-discharged due to bypassing the load-shed protection facility provided by the charge controller 8. In certain cases, such as at Katondo Health Post, the PV module for the radio system faces due West and should be reoriented to face True North. In addition, at Katondo and other health facilities, the original solar batteries have since been replaced by non-solar batteries. In at least four cases, the replacement batteries were half the capacity of the originally supplied units due to the costs and lack of funds in the district budgets. Furthermore, these batteries were generally procured from non-solar suppliers despite there being at least three Energy Regulation Board (ERB) approved suppliers in the district. 9 8 It seems that PV system suppliers are by-passing the charge controller on the load side due to the high current required by the HF radio for transmission (approx A) which exceeds the typical rating of 6 10 A for the smaller (and cheaper) charge controllers which are generally supplied for these systems. 9 The ERB assesses and licences companies as approved solar suppliers in terms of a Standard Licence for the Right to Engage in the Manufacture, Supply, Installation and Maintenance of Solar Energy Systems. There were seventeen licensed solar companies as at 31 st December

33 3.1.2 Energy for vaccine refrigeration Vaccine refrigeration is a critical energy service in delivering the Expanded Programme on Immunisation (EPI) and a Cold Chain management system is implemented from Lusaka. Vaccine refrigeration at the health centres which were visited is provided by either solar PV vaccine refrigerators of three basic types old BP VR 50 chest refrigerators, old Electrolux DC 42 and newer 50 DC chest refrigerators, and a few old MINUS litre upright refrigerators or by paraffin including old Sibir upright units and Electrolux 42 EK and newer 50 EK units. The solar PV refrigerators are supplied by discrete 12 V DC systems ranging from Wp with Ah of battery storage. Typically, these systems comprise the configuration and components set out in Table 3.4. During the hot months of the year, vaccine fridges are frequently used by staff to cool food items and beverages. This abuse can both result in contamination of vaccines and the fridge being unable to maintain a sufficient temperature for preserving the quality of vaccines and drugs. The CBoH, through the Cold Chain Manager, has currently standardised on the Electrolux RCW 50 solar vaccine refrigerator. This fridge has been supplied under the recent JICAfunded cold chain upgrade programme. There is presently some uncertainty regarding the energy consumption of this fridge for sizing and design of solar PV systems. The present ZAMSIF procurement documents have conflicting requirements of an estimated average load consumption of 1560 kwh/day whereas the WHO specifications for solar PV systems for vaccine refrigerators (included in the procurement document) requires a consumption of less than 1100 Wh/day at an ambient temperature of 43 o C 10. However, the WHO/ UNICEF product guide lists of 2000, lists the following alternative vaccine refrigerators: Norcoast Model NRC WHO / UNICEF code PISE3/65-M Norcoast Model NRC WHO / UNICEF code PISE3/92-M Fortum AES Model CFS49 ISI WHO / UNICEF code PISE3/70-M SunFrost Model RFVB 134a WHO / UNICEF code PISE3/77-M Dulas Model VC-150 F WHO / UNICEF code PISE3/79-M Electrolux Model RCW 42DC WHO / UNICEF code PISE3/31-M Electrolux Model RCW 50DC WHO / UNICEF code PISE3/93-M BP Solar VR50 WHO / UNICEF code PISE3/37-M Tata TBP VR50 WHO / UNICEF code PISE3/83-M Comesse Soudure SA WHO / UNICEF code PISE3/76-M Solamatics PVR 150 WHO / UNICEF code PISE3/101-M There does not appear to be a clear policy or plan for determining the energy implications of the cold chain at Rural Health Centres and Health Posts, especially in terms of the energy requirements for ice-pack freezing. The ice-pack freezing policy has a significant impact on 10 WHO/UNICEF E3/RF.4 1 January

34 the energy consumption at these facilities and hence the sizing and cost of solar PV systems required to provide this energy. Table 3.4 Typical energy system for refrigeration System component Rating Comments System configuration Discrete 12 V DC solar PV system providing a dedicated supply for the vaccine refrigerator Typically installed as part of a donor-driven programme such as World Bank or JICA Solar PV modules Wp Crystalline modules; mostly oriented correctly; some dusty Array mounting structure Galvanized steel Orientation mostly due North; shallow angles of tilt approx o to horizontal Charge controller (missing in some cases) Battery Battery box Wiring, switchgear Battery fuse A Steca or dedicated BP or NAPS unit C20 rate; flooded electrolyte Plastic NAPS battery boxes or lockable wooden boxes or high level, wall-mounted brackets 6, 4 or 2.5 mm 2 multi-strand copper Exide RR1 or RR2; tubular plate VARTA or Tudor solar batteries Some systems had no battery box Good wiring and switchgear in NAPS systems; battery connections inadequate in other cases Most systems did not have a battery fuse Vaccine refrigerator Chest or upright units WHO/EPI approved Electrolux 42 or 50 DC chest units; one MINUS litre upright unit Energy for lighting Most sites that were visited had some form of solar PV lighting system. Clinic lighting Clinic lighting at the facilities which were visited was supplied by 12 V DC PV systems capable of between Wh/day. These systems supplied wall-mounted or ceiling-mounted 12 V DC luminaries of varying degrees of quality. It is interesting to note that Mwasemphangwe Zonal Health Centre had no lighting despite being a larger health facility and also having some under-utilised solar PV capacity in the system providing energy for the microscope in the laboratory. 28

35 Table 3.5 Typical energy system for lighting System component Rating Comments System configuration Discrete 12 V DC solar PV system supplying DC lights Typical SHS-type system Solar PV module Wp Crystalline modules; mostly oriented correctly; some dusty Array mounting structure Galvanized steel Orientation mostly due North; shallow angles of tilt approx o to horizontal Charge controller (missing in some cases) Battery Battery box Wiring, switchgear Battery fuse Lights 6-10 A Steca Solsum or Theta; Morningstar SunSaver 10; Power People C20 rate; flooded electrolyte Lockable wooden box or high level, wall-mounted brackets 2.5 mm 2 multi-strand copper W DC wall-or ceiling-mounted luminaries Exide RR1 or RR2; none of the systems had a battery fuse Some systems had no battery box Battery connections inadequate in some cases No systems had a battery fuse Sollatek, Omnilite, others Lighting for staff houses The importance of energy services for staff houses for recruiting and retaining staff in rural areas cannot be emphasised enough. It is of vital importance that staff houses are supplied with basic energy services e.g. lighting if quality education and health services are to be provided in rural areas. However, despite lighting (and entertainment) in staff homes being considered a high priority by staff, only one of the sites visited (Katondo Health Post) had lighting for staff houses. This is not the case for educational facilities, which have been upgraded with solar electricity under the BESSIP programme. In these cases, staff houses are provided with indoor lighting using roof mounted 13 W DC fluorescent tube luminaries. Outside lighting there was no outside lighting. Portable lighting As shown, Nsadzu Rural Health solar lantern, which had recently been donated. In other schools and health centres used their personal dry-cell lighting. Centre had a cases staff at torches for Energy for water supply Water supply for schools and health centres differs from site to site. Three rural health centres and one secondary school had been equipped with solar PV pumping systems of which only one was still operational due to theft and technical breakdowns and all of the other institutions were equipped with hand pumps. 29

36 Table 3.6 Typical energy system for water supply System component Rating Comments System configuration Discrete direct-drive DC PV pumping systems with linear current booster Imported systems from South Africa; supplied by borehole contractor Solar PV modules 300 Wp 4 x 75 Wp crystalline modules Array mounting structure Charge controller (missing in some cases) Wiring, switchgear Pump Storage tank Galvanized steel pole mount One system had a masonry structure around the pole mount to protect the array from theft A AllPower Pump Master unit 4 or 2.5 mm 2 multi-strand copper DC positive displacement submersible pump (with brushes and diaphragms) litre HDPE tank elevated 8-10 m on a concrete stand Good original wiring and switchgear; replacement wiring inadequate in some cases All Power Apart from one technical breakdown, due to a seized motor, the main problem experienced with the PV pumping systems has been theft primarily of the solar modules. In one case, at Vulamkoko Rural Health Centre, the four PV modules had been stolen and three were recovered a year later and the system has been re-commissioned. It now provides all the water needs of the Health Centre and the surplus water is used for a food garden. 3.2 ICT services to rural facilities General communications services High frequency Radio High frequency radio systems (HF radio) are extensively used by the public health systems. Most health centres and some ambulances have installed HF radio. The system is mainly used for emergency calls and to relay important messages within the health system. Some centres will let schools and villagers use the system to relay non-health related messages, e.g. information about funerals or missing exam papers. Most radios have programmed two channels: One channel that the centres use and one channel that is reserved for the Zambia Flying Doctor Service (ZFDS). Both channels use the five-megahertz (Mhz) frequency band. 30

37 Table 3.7 Health districts radio and PSTN access District Health centres and health posts HF radio locations PSTN access Share HF radio (%) Share PSTN (%) Chadiza Lundazi Chama Mambwe Katete Chipata Total Source: District action plans. Most health centres are pleased with the radio system. It is reliable and easy to learn and to use. The coverage is unproblematic as long as the system is properly installed with a high antenna. One station costs around 12 million kwacha (USD 2500). As Table 3.8 shows, this includes the necessary radios, antenna, solar panels, battery, transport and installation. Transport and installation costs will vary depending on the location. Table 3.8 HF Radio system HF radio system Zambian kwacha USD Radio unit Solar panel, charge controller, wiring Broadband antenna Battery Transport, accommodation and installation Total Source: Zambia Flying Doctor Service The ZFDS have played a pivotal role in developing the HF health radio network. The company s radio workshop sells the necessary hardware and offers installation and maintenance support on both radio and solar installations. Up to now the system has been used for voice services only. The company is currently testing -access with access speeds of 9.6 Kbit/s using Kenwood HF radios. PSTN The Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) is operated by Zamtel, the incumbent and monopoly operator. There are about 85,000 exchange lines connected to ca 80 exchanges. 11 Few of these lines belong to schools and health institutions. As Table 3.9 shows, out of 661 basic and secondary schools in the Eastern province, around five percent have PSTN access. 11 Sida (2001) A Country ICT Survey for Zambia, 31

38 Table 3.9 PSTN access Facility Number of schools Number of schools w. PSTN access Share (%) Secondary school Basic school Total Source: Ministry of Education Zamtel s pricing policy is characterized by low costs for line rental and local calls, and relatively high costs for national and international calls. Some of Zamtel s prices are detailed in Table One reason for the low PSTN penetration is the high initial fees. A potential new customer is asked to pay for any non-trivial network expansion. This can easily cost several thousands dollars, which is out of range for poor schools and health centres. Table 3.10 Zamtel pricing Zamtel PSTN pricing Zambian kwacha USD Line rental PSTN per month Line rental WLL per month Local call per minute Chipatat to Lusaka per minute Zamtel internet access per minute Zamtel ISP subscription per month Another reason for the low penetration is that many schools, health centres and villages are simply out of range from the exchanges. PSTN access lines can extend up to approximately nine kilometres from an exchange. In order to cover the Eastern province with PSTN services, Zamtel would have to install a number of new exchanges. Given Zamtel s constrained resources, this is an unlikely scenario. One way of extending the PSTN network without establishing new exchanges is to build Wireless Local Loop (WLL) systems. Zamtel has installed this in Mfuwe, which borders the South Luangwa national park. This system operates in the 1.9 Ghz frequency band and has a range of around 25 kilometres when there are no major obstacles between the end users antenna and the WLL base station. Zamtel is planning to expand the WLL services to Mambwe and Chipata. The initial fee for WLL services is 150,000 kwacha (USD 30). Another advantage of WLL services is that they are less prone to vandalism. Zamtel is losing at least kwacha 90 million per month (USD 18750) in the Eastern Province due to looting of poles and copper wires. This behaviour drains resources from Zamtel and it reduces network quality. Thus, WLL service quality is higher than the wired connections. GSM Zambia has three GSM network operators: Celtel, Telecel, and CellZ. The newest network is CellZ, which was launched in May Zambian GSM coverage has traditionally been along the line of rail from Livingston in the South via Lusaka to the Copperbelt on the Congolese border. Zambia s mobile penetration was around 1.5 percent per December 2003, which places Zambia fairly low in mobile penetration, also when compared to other African nations. Most end-users are on prepaid plans where there is no monthly fee. As Table 3.11 shows, Celtel and CellZ have comparable prices. CellZ prices are somewhat lower, but given that CellZ is the least established operator this is no surprise. There is, however, one major 32

39 pricing difference between the two operators: Calls to PSTN phones are about half the price when using CellZ. This is probably a significant advantage for the CellZ network. One reason for this pricing difference could be that CellZ is fully owned and operated by Zamtel, which also owns and operates the PSTN network. Table 3.11 Celtel and CellZ pricing Celtel pricing Zambian kwacha USD Celtel peak per minute Celtel off-peak per minute Other networks peak per minute Other networks off-peak per minute SMS (to Celtel and Telecel) per message Celtel access per minute, all day CellZ pricing Zambian kwacha USD CellZ and fixed line peak per minute CellZ and fixed line off-peak per minute Other networks peak per minute Other networks off-peak per minute SMS per message Source: CellZ/Zamtel, CelTel Radio & TV Zambians are avid users of radio and television programming. Some schools, cafes and hotels have satellite subscriptions to the DSTV network. The most popular bundle includes 40 channels and costs ca USD 60 per month in addition to the necessary equipment. USD 60 is also close to the current average monthly income for Zambian households, which makes satellite TV unaffordable for most of the population. Instead they rely on the analogue terrestrial network, which transmits the ZNBC, the state-run TV channel. Some households use PV systems to run TV, while others transport the battery by bike to the nearest city for charging. Many people emphasized the importance of access to TV as a way of recruiting staff to rural schools and health centres. Internet access Broadly speaking, internet networks can be divided into two parts: Access network and transport network. The access network is the network between the end user and the local exchange or base station. The transport network is the network from local exchanges or base stations and to other networks. Access networks Zamnet, an ISP affiliated with the University of Zambia, has offered internet access to Zambians since Dial-up access using the PSTN network is by far the most common access method. There is no ISDN service so dial-up access speeds are no higher than 57 Kbit/s and actual speeds can be significantly lower. Given the relatively high cost of a computer and low PSTN penetration, there is a favourable climate for internet cafes. Costs vary considerable between different access methods. As Table 3.12 shows, dial-up PSTN is by far the most economical access method, and for most schools and health centres the only 33

40 realistic alternative at today s price levels. Internet access costs at internet cafes are about the same as the estimated GSM access costs. This is not directly comparable since internet cafes include the use of a computer in the cost. Table 3.12 Internet access costs Access method Speed/usage Zambian kwacha/month USD/month Dial-up PSTN 30 min per day min per day hrs per day GSM 30 min per day min per day hrs per day Two way satellite High overbooking Some overbooking Source: Zamtel, Celtel, Uganda schools association, Teleplan analysis. Not including cost of computer or PSTN line rental costs. For some access methods there is some uncertainty associated with the actual cost level. Transport network All internet traffic to and from Zambia travels over satellite links. Zamtel connects to international networks from Mwembeshi earth station outside Lusaka, and the other ISPs have agreements with various satellite owners. Within Zambia most internet traffic is transported over Zamtel s radio links. There are also some fibre links established in the Copperbelt, but the usage of this is uncertain. In addition, ZESCO has announced plans for a countrywide fibre optic network. From Lusaka to Chipata, Zamtel has over 150 Mbit/s capacity using point-to-point radio links, many of which are solar powered. This capacity compares well to rural capacities in more developed nations. The system is reliable, although they are prone to lightning damage in the rain season. Other ways of communicating Most Zambians have no access to telephony of any kind. Thus, messages are relayed by other means. Bicycles have become popular in the recent years, thanks to the Tata bicycle factory in Chipata, which assembles the sturdy Roadrunner bicycles. Many teachers and headmasters in rural schools bicycle 20 kilometres several times per week to transact schools business and collect salaries. The MoE has special couriers who distribute examination papers by van. The postal services reach most areas of the country Access to computers Health centres & hospitals None of the health centres or health posts we visited had installed computers. Patient registers and other information are recorded on paper. Notes are handwritten. With the exception of one district, all district health administrations have computer and internet access. The computers are mainly used for budgeting, reporting, and access. Most computers are at least a few years old and run Windows 95 or Windows 98 operating systems. By far the most computerized institution we visited was the St Francis mission hospital. St Francis has a computerized accounting and payroll system, and the hospital has developed its own inpatient and outpatient management information system. The system is developed, 34

41 maintained and operated by self-taught individuals, and shows the power of local competence and enthusiasm. In addition, the hospital is about to participate in a telemedicine project where digital pictures from X-ray machines and microscopes would be ed to international experts for analysis and diagnosis. However, the quality of the power supply is an important issue. St Francis experienced a 20 million-kwacha damage to an X-ray machine because of power surges. In addition, there were damaged fax machines, copiers, and computers. The short-term solution to this is the use of an Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS). Unfortunately, a UPS costs around kwacha, which is almost USD 150. In Chipata, which has no local electricity production and is located at the end of a long power line, the use of a UPS is essential to ensure PC integrity. Schools Computers for Zambian Secondary School, an NGO assisting schools with computers, has donated a total of 1015 computers to more than 100 schools with more than 150 high school teachers trained under the same scheme. None of the primary schools we visited had installed computers. Both secondary schools we visited had received 10 used computers each from an NGO, but neither had installed them. The computers seemed to be in good condition, and the ministry told us that most computers run on Windows 95 or Windows 98. The Teacher training college in Chipata has a computer room with seven PCs that are reserved for lecturers only. These computers are used for lesson preparation, but have no internet connection. In addition, the college has recently installed one computer in the library that can be used by both students and lecturers. This computer is set up with internet access, but students must get permission from the vice principal before they can access the internet. Private use is not allowed. The teacher s resource centre, located close to the college, has four computers that are mainly used for typing reports and lesson plans. 35

42 36

43 4 Findings and key issues 4.1 Energy supply The provision of electricity services in rural areas using solar PV systems takes place within the context of the complex process of rural electrification which is generally focused on grid electricity. This requires a high level of planning and co-ordination to optimally deliver grid and off-grid services. However, it is also important to note that grid electricity is not always adequate. Feedback on the ZESCO grid electricity supply indicated that the availability and quality of supply in the Eastern Province is poor especially in the rainy season. Customers complained about power failures, with durations of over a number of days, and of damage to expensive equipment due to voltage fluctuations. 12 Many rural energy programmes in Zambia have concentrated welfare benefits to households and community facilities such as schools and hospitals, and failed to consider the commercial sustainability of the programme. For example, all solar systems provided by government are targeted at community centres, rural health institutions and schools. However, the success rate of these energy initiatives has been limited, and one reason is the lack of government responsibility and the lack of participation by local people in the decision making process regarding the energy systems. In addition, maintenance costs and insufficient after sales services constitute major problem with government projects. 13 There does not appear to be a single database or survey, which documents the overall number of solar PV systems currently installed in Zambia. In order to build a sustainable PV market in Zambia it is important to understand both the demand and supply side opportunities and constraints. Consumers want electricity for several purposes but they also need to know the limitations of the different options. In addition, most people in rural areas cannot afford to buy a solar system for use at home. However, improving the livelihoods of the rural poor can still be obtained by providing energy services with a focus on vital facilities like health and education (see also section 6.3). In addition, in a sparsely populated and poor country like Zambia, focusing on important services like rural health facilities and schools, implies that it is possible to provide energy 12 The St Francis Mission Hospital incurred high repair costs and a loss of the ability to undertake X-rays when the X-ray machine was damaged due to voltage/power fluctuations in the ZESCO supply. 13 Mbewe, A. (2002) Renewables and Energy for Rural Development in Zambia: Short Term Report, Working Paper No. 291, AFREPREN/FWD, Nairobi. Mbewe, A. (2004) Key Factors Affecting Dissemination of Modern Energy Services in Rural Zambia, AFREPREN Policy Brief. 37

44 services to areas where the load is otherwise too low for the provision to be economically sound. By aggregating demand, incentives are created for establishment and location of local PV companies as well as other small-scale companies. The rural non-agricultural sector is important for overall development and for generating further linkages (consumption and forward and backward production linkages) that provide the basis for a dynamic growth cycle. For example, the rural non-agricultural sector provides additional regular employment and income opportunities and it also provides seasonal and part-time employment for farm workers during off-peak farming seasons. All these activities increase incomes of marginal producers and thereby contribute to development and poverty alleviation. 14 However, in order for the demand aggregation to actually result in an efficient supply response by the local private sector, the following issues need to be addressed Information barriers In order to stimulate both acceptance of the PV technology and a commercially sustainable market, it is of vital importance to overcome the existing information barriers. If consumers are adequately informed on how to use and what to expect from different PV systems their demand for equipment and appliances will act as a spur for the local private sector. However, staff at the facilities visited were generally poorly informed about how to use their solar PV systems most effectively. It was apparent that the training that was supplied with installation of equipment was insufficient sometimes a document/brochure was supplied without ensuring that the instructions could be read and understood. In other cases, there was no training provided at all and there were no user manuals or operation and maintenance (O&M) manuals available on site. The consequence was poorly managed systems sometimes installed and operated incorrectly, inefficient use of the systems due to inadequate knowledge of the capacity and limitations of the system. The result has been capital deterioration and low confidence and acceptance for the technology. However, it should be emphasised that users are not unwilling to receive training and advice and rather embrace the idea of such learning systems. Lastly, there appears to be no information on customer perceptions and service needs. This kind of information could be obtained from market surveys, which include focus group sessions to provide a more reliable basis for testing levels of awareness of energy supply options and also of the more subtle nuances of customers needs and expectations Financing barriers High initial costs of PV systems and lack of finance mechanisms (affordable and accessible credit) makes market development difficult. The proximity to financial institutions is important for the possibilities of obtaining credit. Relationship lending, which implies that it is easier to obtain credit if the creditor knows you, is an important determinant of access. From Table 6.4, it is clear that an overwhelming 80 percent of the rural population has 16 kilometres or more to a bank, which severely restricts the scope for accessible credit. In addition, rural households and small-scale farmers and businesses usually have to pay higher 14 Stewart, F. et al. (1994) Alternative Development Strategies in SubSaharan Africa, MacMillan Press Ltd., London. 38

45 interests on loans since they are considered high-risk customers. Rural households have fewer assets suitable for collateral and small-scale farmers and businesses are highly exposed and more vulnerable to e.g. varying income and climatic conditions Institutional barriers Institutional barriers to commercial sustainability include direct programme management and funding issues as well as issues relating to government and private sector coordination, import tariffs, and standards. For example, it is clear that until recently, there has been minimal, or no, co-ordination between the two Ministries regarding supply and installation of solar PV systems, and there appears to be no mutual awareness of the energy needs, policies or implementation plans of the two Ministries. However, some level of co-ordination between solar PV systems for health and education facilities is currently undertaken independently of the Ministries in the procurement and supervision process used by ZAMSIF for current construction programmes. Since rural health facilities and schools are frequently located close together, there are clear opportunities for co-ordination regarding the overall approach and more detailed aspects of solar PV electrification such as standardisation of system design, supply and installation and most importantly maintenance. Another example is that in Zambia, there is a 25 percent import duty on batteries (for private companies) and sometimes the customs confuse solar batteries with other batteries and hence levy a charge also on solar batteries. The high price induces the consumers to purchase cheaper, but inappropriate batteries, which in turn reduces the potential for private sector development and causes the solar system to function sub-optimally or to malfunction. The project specifications, which are currently used in Zambia are those prepared and published by ZAMSIF (the MoE is using a modified version of the ZAMSIF project specifications). However, these project specifications, prepared by a group of consultants, including staff from the University of Zambia, are currently under review. 15 In terms of specific standards and technical specifications for solar PV systems in Zambia, draft technical specifications have been developed in Zambia but they are currently not finalised and have not been published. The absence of standardised project and technical specifications for solar PV in Zambia constitute an impediment to private sector development. It deters an efficient supply response by affecting procurement processes and competition adversely Local infrastructure and maintenance regimes An important issue for ensuring customer confidence in solar PV are perceptions of the longterm backup, both in terms of technical and customer advice. There appears to have been effectively no maintenance of the solar PV systems that were visited. In the cases where local users or technicians had taken the initiative to undertake some maintenance, this was inadequate due to lack of technical skills and/or lack of sufficient resources to buy the correct replacement components such as lights or batteries. 15 Comments on the procurement document by ZAMSIF for the TENDER FOR THE SUPPLY AND INSTALLATION OF SOLAR SYSTEMS FOR LIGHTING AND ENERGIZING INVERTER POWERED APPLIANCES TO EIGHTY (80NO.) PRIMARY SCHOOLS AND FOUTY FOUR (44NO.) HEALTH CENTER IN VARIOUS PROVINCES OF ZAMBIA, World Bank, June

46 Consequently, as indicated, only approximately 44 percent of the installed energy service capacity was available to the users. There also appear to be no plans for maintenance of the systems installed under the more recent, and current, ZAMSIF or MoE solar PV programmes. A systematic and long-term maintenance regime is arguably the single most important requirement for a successful solar PV programme Ownership. Systems for transferring ownership of the PV system to the beneficiary need to be developed otherwise incentive structures can be distorted and result in sub-optimal use of the equipment. Currently, the ownership of e.g. solar systems rests with the central Ministry, which reduces the incentives for proper resource management. A system must be developed through which ownership of the systems is transferred to the beneficiaries in order to ascertain an efficient use of the resources and to maximise efforts to prevent theft. Theft and security were mentioned as an issue by users although this appeared to be primarily a problem for the pumping systems. This is most likely as a consequence of these systems being located some distance away from the health centre of staff homes. It appeared that, in the case where the stolen PV modules were recovered, that the thieves were strangers in the District and not local community members Tendering and procurement processes. In Zambia, barriers to private sector development include lack of capacity by local companies to participate in the tendering procedure by submitting quality proposals, lack of capacity to evaluate proposals, and corruption. There is too little transparency and too much information asymmetry in the process and several actors have indicated that many problems start at the National Tender Board. Hence, key areas for improvement include: More concise and simpler tender documentation to facilitate/minimise tendering and evaluation overheads Structuring of the contracts into discrete packages, which can be tendered jointly or separately The project documentation and technical specifications for implementation of solar PV programmes should focus on standardisation of system configurations; use of high quality materials; installation codes of practice; and acceptance testing procedures Social capital Some of the private companies in Lusaka expressed that one reason for not establishing branch offices in other parts of the country was that it was difficult to find partners in which they could trust. In a country where the average life expectancy at birth is 33 years old, trust relations are difficult to build and sustain and this has a bearing on the way in which society works Sub-optimal PV system design As indicated in Section 3, the existing solar PV systems which were visited were providing only 44 percent of the actual installed energy capacity due to a combination of inadequate 40

47 design and/or installation quality and a lack of a systematic and properly resourced maintenance regime. Table 4.1 outlines the typical configurations of solar PV systems, which are currently specified in the ZAMSIF contract documents. 16 It is important to note that the systems presented in Table 4.1 are all new systems and they have not yet been installed as opposed to the four to five year old systems that were visited during the fieldwork. Table 4.1 Name of facility Year of installation 1 x 2 Classroom 1 x 3 Classroom Staff house Typical configurations of solar PV systems currently specified for Basic Schools Kabanga Primary School Luanchele Primary School Chankomo Primary School Shadrick Mailo Primary School Due in 2004 Due in 2004 Due in 2004 Due in off 600 Wp array / V DC battery bank 5 off 320 Wp array / V DC battery bank 1 off 480 Wp array / 714 Ah 12 V DC battery bank PV system 1 off 600 Wp array / V DC battery bank 2 off 320 Wp array / V DC battery bank 2 off 480 Wp array / 714 Ah 12 V DC battery bank PV system 3 off 320 Wp array / V DC battery bank 1 off 480 Wp array / 714 Ah 12 V DC battery bank PV system 1 off 600 Wp array / V DC battery bank 3 off 320 Wp array / V DC battery bank Total demand 5.5 kwh/day 4.3 kwh/day 4.8 kwh/day 5.1 kwh/day Total generation capacity 2 kwp 1.62 kwp 1.8 kwp 1.92 kwp Total storage capacity Total materials cost for PV systems Cost for transport, installation, training V 28.2 V 31.5 V V US$ US$ US$ US$ US$1 400 US$ US$1 450 US$1 800 These specifications are subject to review. 17 unduly costly), for reasons, which include: They are judged to be oversized (and hence 16 Source: Suntech Appropriate Technology tender documents, April Comments on the procurement document by ZAMSIF for the TENDER FOR THE SUPPLY AND INSTALLATION OF SOLAR SYSTEMS FOR LIGHTING AND ENERGIZING INVERTER POWERED APPLIANCES TO EIGHTY (80NO.) PRIMARY SCHOOLS AND FOURTY FOUR (44NO.) HEALTH CENTRES IN VARIOUS PROVINCES OF ZAMBIA, World Bank, June

48 Coarse and excessively high load assessments; Conservative estimation of the solar resource; Simplistic sizing methodology. Furthermore, the technical configuration of the systems is not optimal and is likely to lead to unsatisfactory performance and premature battery replacements. Load demand assessment It is clear that there is no commonly accepted basis for determining the energy and power demands at health and education facilities. Solar PV systems for vaccine refrigeration systems (or lighting) varied in energy supply capacity. Systems for radios appeared to be more standardised. Lighting levels were varied and appeared to be arbitrarily determined, mostly by the lamp rating and efficacy of the luminaire. The load assessment in the ZAMSIF procurement documents are fairly coarse and overestimated both in terms of the level of service required and the utilisation patterns of the appliances. System configuration The common PV system configuration at facilities, which were visited, is a multiple discrete system configuration comprising a number of separate 12 V DC systems. Typically, a health post would have three to five separate small DC PV systems dedicated to a radio, a vaccine refrigerator, one (or more) sets of lights (and perhaps a submersible borehole pump). This configuration approach of multiple discrete systems on a site is continued in the recent, and current, ZAMSIF procurement programmes for solar PV systems. While ensuring independence, and the associated security of supply, of each discrete system, this system configuration misses the potential benefits of greater utilisation, as a consequence of diversity in the load demand of the different appliances, of the aggregated installed generation and storage capacity of the combined systems. A disadvantage of a more integrated systems approach is the greater complexity in the design, operation and maintenance of the system. The use of DC is appropriate for dedicated supply in radio communications and for vaccine refrigeration systems. It is less clearly the preferred approach for lighting and entertainment appliances. In some cases during the field visit, lighting systems were not operational due to luminaries being damaged or broken or lamps missing due to the unavailability of nonstandard DC appliances. The use of AC for plug points is a desirable feature for operating a wide range of small appliances such as: TV s, radios, cell phone chargers and rechargeable battery chargers. Supply and installation In general, the systems were poorly specified and installed. Basic technical issues such as compatibility between components, charge control for the battery and wiring sizing are neglected. In many cases, such as the radio systems, the charge controllers, when present, 42

49 were by-passed on the load side thereby negating the primary purpose of the controller in small DC systems. In many cases, there were no charge controllers, battery boxes, battery fuses or safety equipment. In two cases, the orientation of the solar panels was wrong and it is unlikely that these systems are capable of delivering more than percent of the potential output. Finally, the installation of the systems is not adequate. Most systems did not have appropriate connections, especially on the battery terminals. 4.2 ICT services HF Radio HF radio networks are reliable, have a long range, and have no monthly or per minute costs. The frequency that health centres use for emergency communications works, but there is a danger of congestion. Therefore, other use of HF radio, for example a school network, should be used on another frequency than the health channels. Such frequencies are available from the Communications Authority of Zambia (CAZ), and the ZFDS can assist in preparing an application PSTN & WLL In areas where there is PSTN or WLL coverage, these solutions offer low-cost internet access at speeds of up to 57 kbps. The use of WLL reduces the likelihood of vandalism and increases service quality, but is only available in one location (Mfuwe) in the eastern province. Given the constrained resources of many Zambian schools, it is important to investigate ways of reducing the cost or sharing the cost GSM mobile services Many things indicate that Africa s communications future is wireless in general and GSMbased in particular. Across the continent, the number of mobile phone subscribers increased by 38 percent during 2003 and is expected to grow by 52 percent in African GSM operators have proven that they are able to build and operate networks that are reliable, costeffective and profitable. This has increased investor confidence, which means that mobile operators can finance network expansion. From a low base, the Zambian GSM operators are steadily increasing coverage areas. In the Eastern province, we have reason to believe that coverage will be expanded from one town (Chipata) today to almost ten towns within one year. When compared to PSTN per-minute charges, mobile telephony is more expensive. There are, however, several things to be done in order to decrease the cost of mobile telephony: Use SMS. One SMS with CellZ costs the same as a one-minute local call. Even poor schools and health centres can afford some SMS usage to relay important messages. Share handsets. The most popular Zambian GSM price plans have no fixed subscription fee. However, one must have access to a mobile handset. A Nokia 3310 retails in Lusaka for around 600,000 kwacha (USD 125). This is equal to two average monthly 18 Baskerville consulting 43

50 household incomes, and a major hurdle for access. In order to deal with this, operators and microfinance institutions in other poor countries have developed phoneladyprogrammes where one person gets a loan to purchase a handset and launch a publicly accessible mobile phone booth 19. These programmes create employment and increase voice and SMS access. There is every reason to believe that such a programme could be successful in Zambia. Another advantage of GSM networks is that the handsets require little maintenance and that basic services are easy to use. Zambia is a large and sparsely populated country. Despite the current network expansion there will be large areas left without GSM coverage. For villages that are on the edge of coverage areas, use of special GSM antennas can increase the coverage radius by a few kilometres. These antennas cost around USD 15 and can be a part of a phoneladyprogramme. GSM networks can also be used for internet access, but the costs are higher and the speeds are lower than standard PSTN dial-up access. Celtel, a GSM operator, offers an service for 816 kwacha per minute. A customer can take an -ready handset to a Celtel distributor, which will program the necessary changes on the handset and set up an account xx wireless networks During the last five to ten years there has been a huge development of wireless data networks. Much of this is due to the introduction of the WLAN radio standard by the IEEE. 20 With the introduction of radio standards, the cost of radio equipment has significantly decreased, also for non-wlan equipment. Wireless access is used by several Zambian ISPs, but only in densely populated areas such as Lusaka and Kitwe. One of them is Microlink, a wireless ISP operating in five Zambian cities WAY satellite access 2way satellite access offers high speed, always on internet access. Unlike dialup solutions, this opens up an opportunity for real-time distance learning and telemedicine. The price in Zambia for a 2way satellite connection starts at around USD 125 per month. This is a heavily overbooked service offering access speeds of up to 512 kbps downstream and 40 kbps upstream. Actual access speeds can be significantly lower. An office-grade service with a lower factor for overbooking costs around USD 500 per month Computers Zambian schools are unanimous in their wish for access to computers and the internet. As one headmaster put it, with a computer, we ll feel like we re part of the modern world. There is no need for new and expensive computers, even a 10-year-old computer can fulfil many, maybe even most, of the computer needs identified in the fieldwork undertaken in this work. Many NGOs distribute computers to Zambian schools. The largest one, Computers for 19 For example Grameen GSM in Bangladesh

51 Zambian Secondary Schools, is in the process of distributing more than 500 computers across the country 21. Another one, Schoolnet Zambia, is building a refurbishment centre in Lusaka. In addition to the distribution of computers, one should especially keep two things in mind: The variable quality of power supply, and the need for training. During the trip to Chipata we found a number of electric appliances damaged by power surges. In Chipata, which has no local electricity production and is located at the end of a long power line, the use of a UPS is essential to ensure PC integrity. Maintenance and training needs Most communications networks require specific and advanced skills in order to be installed and maintained properly. For example, HF radios must be programmed with the right frequencies, and there are specific requirements for antenna installation. GSM and PSTN networks involve network switches that are complicated to calibrate and maintain. The PSTN access network is prone to vandalism so there must be an organization that can replace stolen copper wire and poles at short notice. A private network will face significant challenges regarding capacity building and maintenance. Installing and maintaining a computer is relatively easy. During the field trip we noticed several computers that had been running for many years without much support or maintenance. Most maintenance tasks for a stand-alone computer can be carried out with a little amount of training. The management of a local area network is more complex, and an institution without full time computer staff would probably need to contact external experts for support. Share access For under-resourced public schools and health centres, the cost of purchasing and operating a computer is high. Therefore one should explore ways of sharing the costs and utilizing the equipment to the fullest. For example, a school could let a local entrepreneur use school facilities for an internet café after school hours in order to help finance the computer. Schools that have a computer room should open up the facilities for rental access to other schools or businesses. 4.3 Community-driven projects in Zambia Projects at the local level are initialized by the beneficiaries, e.g. the community, and then communicated to the district health or education office. If there is available funding in the district basket and the project does not involve personnel then the project decision can be taken at the district level. However, if there is insufficient funding available from the district basket, the district office can assist the community in applying for grants from ZAMSIF or MPU. The main differences between ZAMSIF and MPU are that ZAMSIF works mainly with donor loans whereas MPU works mainly with donor grants and that the required community contribution is 15 percent (ZAMSIF) and 25 percent (MPU) respectively. The majority of the community contributions are non-monetary contributions for example bricks. Ownership of the systems rests with the Ministries. Overall, the responsibility for operation and maintenance rests with the provider. For projects under the MPU, the communities are encouraged to set up a maintenance account in which to 21 Source: Ministry of Education 45

52 deposit money. For HF radios, the ZFDS carries out some maintenance and for the cold chain there are maintenance arrangements under the responsibility of Mr. Ahktar Din at the MoH. All district offices have budgets for maintenance but sometimes this money is used for other purposes. One reason for this is that there is inadequate capacity for budgeting and managing maintenance systems. 46

53 5 Recommendations This chapter presents recommendations for obtaining commercially sustainable energy and ICT solutions for rural health facilities and schools in Zambia within the framework set out by the ToR for the current assignment and the framework of the overall World Bank supported IAES project. The structure of this chapter is as follows: Description of recommended solutions to the various energy needs Overcoming information barriers; Financing barriers; Institutional barriers-programme management, import tariffs, and standards; Local infrastructure and maintenance regimes; Ownership; Tendering and procurement processes; Description of recommended solutions to the various ICT needs. 5.1 Energy needs and solutions This assignment covers solar-pv systems in detail as a key energy solution for health and education services in rural areas. The electricity load demand calculations, solar PV sizing and the budget costs for solar PV systems in this report are based on the data which were available to the project team during the course of the field work and also on assumptions based on the experience of the team. These data and assumptions would need to be confirmed during the course of the subsequent steps of programme design to check that they are accurate. The present levels of accuracy are estimated to be in the range of +/- 10 percent and should be treated with this level of confidence. In certain cases, where the ZESCO grid is within 2.7 kilometres of the institutions 22, it makes sense to recommend grid electrification due to the significantly greater benefits of grid power to the institutions and the adjacent communities. More specifically, the average cost per kilometre for 11kV ZESCO distribution lines is USD The minimum equivalent distances for 11 kv line extensions for a Rural Health Post, Rural Health Centre (with five houses) and Basic School (also with five houses) are summarised in Table 5.1, the general recommendation based on these indicative figures, any unelectrified potential customer located more than 2.7 kilometres from the existing grid can safely be regarded as off-grid. However, facilities with limited energy service needs, e.g. Rural Health Posts, constitute 22 At Nsadzu, in the Chadiza District of the Eastern Province, the ZESCO grid terminates at a pumping station approximately kilometres from the Nsadzu Zonal Health Centre and the Nsadzu Mental Health Facility and a school. 47

54 exceptions and should be considered as off-grid already at distances of 0.6 kilometres or more from the existing grid. Table 5.1 Off-grid solutions vs. grid extensions Facility Ave. daily demand (kwh/day) Approx. capital costs for solar PV supply (USD/site) Equivalent grid extension distance (km) Rural Health Post Rural Health Centre Basic School In certain cases, diesel gensets, and even micro-hydro or hybrid systems, can offer solutions for decentralized mini-grids. Lastly, thermal energy solutions such as solar water heating, more efficient wood stoves, and passive thermal design of buildings all offer important and sustainable service benefits but these are also excluded from the scope of this report. System configurations Two basic system configurations are suggested, a discrete DC system configuration called a Type X system in this report and a discrete DC + AC system called a Type Y system in this report. These systems are specified with different capacities such as X/1, X/2 and X/3 to provide different levels of energy output for different applications (see Section 7.2). The overall rationale for this recommendation on system configuration is for simplicity and standardisation, especially for batteries and maintenance Solar electricity energy services for health facilities Energy services at health facilities include some key essential services such as energy for communication, lighting, vaccine refrigeration, water supply, sterilization, water heating, cooking and transport and other less essential services such as energy for suction pumps, laboratory equipment (such as microscopes) and other small appliances. In addition, the complementary energy service needs in staff homes for cooking, water heating, lighting and entertainment are recognized by the MoH as highly important to attract and retain valuable staff in deep rural areas. As indicated earlier, energy service supply options for energy service needs of water heating, sterilization, cooking and transport are beyond the scope of the study and are excluded from the discussion. The comments in this report reflect the status of systems at eight health facilities, which were visited, and information derived from meetings with government officials and other stakeholders during the fieldwork. At present the energy service needs for health facilities are provided by a range of supply options, which vary widely in terms of adequacy and quality of supply. Examples of typical supply options are presented for each energy service requirement. The following sections present a brief overview of the appropriate levels of energy service before suggesting the levels of (solar PV) electricity supply for the identified energy service needs: 48

55 Communication approximately 230 Wh/day 23 of 12 V DC electricity; peak power demand of 225 W (or 18 A at 12.5 V); LOPP 24 of 0.5 percent Lighting indoor (solar illumination level of lux at 900 mm AFFL), outdoor lighting of 3 5 lux at 900 mm AFFL, task lighting ( lux over a working area of 300 x 300 mm at 1000 mm from light source); overall average daily energy requirement for each facility will be dependent on individual floor areas; LOPP of 5 percent Vaccine refrigeration 1050 Wh/day at 12 V DC electricity 25 ; LOPP of 0.5 percent Water pumping 50 litres/day per person for centres (and staff houses) at 75 m total head; at least three days of storage capacity (this guideline is suggested here as an indication of the level of service which may be appropriate although water pumping is excluded from the solution specification in this report due to the site specific nature of each application). Entertainment 150 Wh/day at 12 V DC or 220 V AC, preferably, for TV and radio; LOPP of 5 percent Other needs microscopes, cell phone chargers, etc. (where appropriate); 5 10 Wh/day; LOPP of 5 percent The exact energy demand is dependent on the radio units, which are used. In general the HF radios have higher power demands than very high frequency (VHF) units. LOPP, Loss of Power Probability, is a measure of the availability of supply provided by an energy system. A LOPP of 1 percent means that the level of service will be available (at the specified level) for = approx. 361 days per year (averaged over a number of years). The average daily energy demand is based on the reported consumption of the Electrolux RCW 42DC (blue) as reported in Product Sheet Code PIS E3/31-M of the WHO/UNICEF Product Information Sheets, 2000 which is designed to consume 1050 Wh per day whilst freezing four icepacks of 0.6 litres 49

56 Table 5.2 Energy needs and supply solutions at health facilities Facility Need Solution Reliability Typical Rural Health Post Rural health centre Rural zonal health centre District hospital Communication Vaccine refrigeration Lighting TV / lighting staff home(s) Communication Vaccine refrigeration Lighting TV / lighting nurses homes As per rural health centre but with additional lighting Diverse needs Type X/1 system supplying 250 Wh/day of 12 V DC power for an HF radio Not applicable Type X/3 system supplying a minimum of 110 Wh/day of 12 V DC power for: lux of general indoor lighting for 2-3 hrs/day depending on the room Type Y/1 system supplying 440 Wh/day for a combination of 12 V DC power for : lux of general indoor lighting for 3-4 hrs/day and 220 V AC power for: TV / radio for 3 5 hrs day Type X/1 system supplying 230 Wh/day of 12 V DC power for an HF radio Type X/2 PV system supplying 1050 Wh/day of 12 V DC power for an Electrolux 50 DC refrigerator Mix of Type X/3 and X/4 systems supplying Wh/day of 12 V DC power for: lux of general indoor lighting for 2-3 hrs/day depending on the room Type Y/1 system supplying 440 Wh/day for a combination of 12 V DC power for : lux of general indoor lighting for 3-4 hrs/day and 220 V AC power for: TV / radio for 3 5 hrs day Type X/1 for communication; X/2 for vaccine refrigeration and X/3 or X/4 PV systems for lighting; Type Y1 systems for lighting and plugs in staff houses Grid supply or diesel/hydro/hybrid mini-grid 0.5% LOPP 5% LOPP 5% LOPP 0.5% LOPP 0.5% LOPP 5% LOPP 5% LOPP 0.5 % LOPP for communication & vaccine refrigeration; 5 % LOPP for lighting Some UPS capacity for communication and vaccine refrigeration 50

57 Mission hospital Diverse needs Grid supply or diesel/hydro/hybrid mini-grid Some UPS capacity for communication and vaccine refrigeration Solar electricity energy services for education At education facilities, the energy service requirements for the delivery of education services are less critical than in the case of health facilities. Energy service needs for education include: lighting primarily for school preparation for learners, class preparation and administration by teachers and for community activities and adult education programmes water supply, cooking for school feeding programmes and administration. At secondary schools additional energy service needs include energy for domestic science, workshop activities, chemistry and physics experiments and computing. The following sections present a brief discussion on the appropriate levels of energy service before suggesting the levels of (solar PV) electricity supply for the identified energy service needs. More detailed suggestions of the aggregated average load demand for a typical basic school is presented in Annex C: Technical specifications. Lighting indoor (illumination level of lux at 900 mm AFFL), outdoor lighting of 3 5 lux at 900 mm AFFL; overall average daily energy requirement for each facility will be dependent on individual floor areas; LOPP of 5 percent Computing 200 Wh/day at 220 V AC per notebook; LOPP of 5 percent. Note that it is not cost effective to consider supplying desktop PCs with solar PV electricity because each PC would require approximately 1000 Wh/day which demands a capital investment of approximately US$3000 in energy capacity. Laboratory / practicals 1000 Wh/week (or 145 Wh/day on average) of 220 V AC power per laboratory; LOPP of 5 percent Water pumping 25 litre/day per person for boarding schools at 75 m head; 3 litre/day per person at day schools; at least three days of storage capacity. Entertainment 200 Wh/day at 12 V DC or 220 V AC, preferably, for TV and radio; LOPP of 5 percent Other needs cell phone chargers where appropriate; 5 10 Wh/day; LOPP of 5 percent Based on the discussions and fieldwork, it is considered unlikely that schools in rural areas will be making any significant use of computers or laboratory equipment. These energy service needs are excluded from the recommendations. 51

58 Table 5.3 Energy needs and supply solutions at educational facilities Facility Need Solution Reliability/ comments Basic schools Secondary schools Boarding schools Teacher training colleges Lighting and TV/VCR for classrooms Lighting and entertainment for staff houses Lighting and TV/VCR for classrooms Lighting and entertainment for staff houses Lighting and TV/VCR for classrooms Lighting and entertainment for staff houses Not applicable for solar PV Type Y/2 or Y/3 systems providing 640 or 880 Wh/day of power for 12 V DC lighting at 50 lux in classrooms and office(s) and one 220 V AC outlet Type Y/2 system supplying 640 Wh/day for a combination of 12 V DC power for lux of general indoor lighting for 3-4 hrs/day and 220 V AC power for TV / radio for 3 5 hrs day Type Y/2 or Y/3 systems providing 640 or 880 Wh/day of power for 12 V DC lighting at 50 lux in classrooms and office(s) and one 220 V AC outlet Type Y/2 system supplying 640 Wh/day for a combination of 12 V DC power for lux of general indoor lighting for 3-4 hrs/day and 220 V AC power for TV / radio for 3 5 hrs day Type Y/2 or Y/3 systems providing 640 or 880 Wh/day of power for 12 V DC lighting at 50 lux in classrooms and office(s) and one 220 V AC outlet Type Y/2 system supplying 640 Wh/day for a combination of 12 V DC power for lux of general indoor lighting for 3-4 hrs/day and 220 V AC power for TV / radio for 3 5 hrs day LOPP of 5%; Type and number of systems depending on number of classrooms and staff houses LOPP of 5%; Type and number of systems depending on number of classrooms and staff houses LOPP of 5%; Type and number of systems depending on number of classrooms, dormitories and staff houses. 52

59 5.1.3 Overcoming information barriers Providing information to and training of several people is important as is ensuring continuous training not least since the life expectancy in Zambia is so low. In addition, a combination of on-site training and provision of reference materials is imperative. It recommended that awareness campaigns, aimed at educating end-users on what they are to expect from various systems, e.g. what to expect from a PV solar system of a certain type and size, are launched. A co-ordinated awareness campaign could be driven by the Department of Energy (DoE) in association with the ERB, MoH (including the CBoH) and MoE, and the private sector PV supply companies. Key issues to address are: Solar PV within the context of a national electrification programme; What are the basics of solar PV systems including: How they work, what can one expect of them in terms of service say light-hours and TV-hours per day; What basic maintenance tasks should be undertaken; Who are the licensed solar suppliers, who to contact in the event of queries or problems Financing barriers Stimulating private PV companies in the early stages of market development is important for making the supply chain work. Such stimulation can be done through per watt subsidies ( smart subsidies ), which are granted upon verification of installed systems both in terms of size and meeting specific standards. As long as all private companies are eligible for these subsidies, they provide equitable and competitive incentives for developing the rural PV market. However, it is important that the subsidies are scaled down as the market develops and market PV prices decrease, and eventually phased out. As the market develops, the importance of consumer finance becomes apparent. Provision of special low-interest loans to rural consumers would stimulate PV market development by making the technology more accessible. In addition, since solar panels are frequently stolen, it is clear that there is a second-hand market for panels and that the re-sale value is quite high. Hence, the market for borrowing against the solar panels, i.e. using the solar panels as collateral, should be further stimulated. For this to work, financing institutions in general and micro-credit institutions in particular must be furthered developed, e.g. stimulated by grants, and the staff appropriately trained Institutional issues Programme management In the case of solar PV electrification, programme management is required for two distinct phases of service delivery the initial design, supply and installation phase (Phase 1) and then the operation and maintenance phase (Phase 2). Note that it is essential that Phase 2 is fully planned for before implementation of Phase 1. The nature and capacity in Phase 2 will inform the nature and scale of Phase 1. Phase 2 should be managed by an entity with permanent district level capacity and with access to specialist technical support. This entity should be a commercial operation, which derives income from effective delivery of maintenance and customer service support. This 53

60 establishes the fundamental feedback mechanism to ensure longer-term sustainability of the energy services derived from the capital investment in Phase 1. In addition, it is crucial to provide decentralised capacity for procurement and supervision and to involve representatives from the beneficiary community. Unless the users feel involved and have a sense of ownership of the programme, operations and maintenance are likely to fail. In addition, it is necessary to build in continuous training and this could be done by designing a short curriculum consisting of a brief technical part (e.g. lectures in Lusaka) plus an additional on the spot practical training course. Two of the participants from each community could be assigned the responsibility for repeating the course and training new people at the community level. Import duties Removing the import duty on all batteries would improve the current situation by lowering the price of solar batteries thus making them more attractive. Standards Generally accepted and generally available standards and specifications are essential to establish a culture of good practice, both in terms of supply and installation of solar PV systems. The establishment of the three ESCOs in the Eastern Province has provided a precedent of how this could be started. Ideally, the adherence to the accepted standards and specifications will be ensured by customer feedback to the ERB when approving companies as licensed solar companies. The specific recommendations are elaborated in Annex B: Model design: Section Local infrastructure and maintenance regimes During the time spent in Zambia it has become clear that the highest priority is the need to design a maintenance regime and establish the institutional, technical and financial mechanisms to undertake routine and breakdown maintenance by district level entities on a commercial basis. For example, programme funds should be allocated at the outset for maintenance including: Administration of maintenance of PV systems on a district wide basis over a period of ten years after handover; Facilitation of the contracting of maintenance contracts with licensed solar contractors; Payment of maintenance costs for bi-annual routine maintenance visits and intermittent visits for breakdowns; Costs of materials for breakdowns (over and above the spares stocks); Replacement of all batteries over a period of a few years year 6 to 10; Monitoring and evaluation of system performance especially availability and costs of maintenance. In addition, there are significant gains to be made from negotiating provincial (or district) level arrangements jointly for health and education facilities. It is more likely that commercial viability can be ensured by aggregating the maintenance for health and education (and local SHS) in a district (or few districts). The maintenance modality should then inform the design and technical specifications for the systems. 54

61 A promising option is to further build on the ESCOs in the Eastern Province (see also description on page 74), which currently maintain solar home systems for their customers on a regular basis. The ESCO project has been a pilot project but is ready to extend their services also to include other types of facilities and systems. In provinces, which do not have ESCO s, the ZFDS, which visits the various parts of the country on a regular basis, has the competence for undertaking maintenance of radios and Type X (DC only) solar systems. An important additional benefit of regular maintenance visits would be the creation of higher levels of awareness among users (customers) to enable them to utilise their system more optimally. Lastly, the District Cold Chain Technicians who are located in all 72 Districts also have some basic PV maintenance competency. These technicians could also be engaged in maintenance arrangements to service solar PV systems at education facilities as well as health facilities. The ZFDS and District Cold Chain Technicians would require additional training to ensure an adequate and standardised level of maintenance. A more detailed discussion on maintenance is included in Annex C: Technical specifications Ownership. Ownership of the PV system should be transferred to the beneficiary as soon as it is possible, which will depend on both the beneficiary and the PV system installed. However, a clear and transparent plan for this transfer should be agreed upon at the start of the programme Tendering and procurement processes. Currently, procurement of supply and installation contracts is associated with a multitude of problems including the absence of standardised project and technical specifications for solar PV systems. There is significant scope for improvement and key areas for improvement include: More concise and simpler tender documentation to facilitate/minimise tendering and evaluation overheads; Structuring of the contracts into build-operate train-transfer (BOTT) type agreements which place a high level of responsibility on the contractors to supply and install at a high level of quality and then to establish a decentralised maintenance capacity to ensure effective operation against contractual terms of the systems for a period of up to three years. The project documentation and technical specifications for implementation of solar PV programmes should focus on: Standardisation of system configurations this facilitates better quality maintenance and support in the longer term; Use of high quality materials even if these are imported. It is important to make sure that the import tariff structure does not discriminate against good quality equipment; Emphasis on codes of practice for installation to ensure a clear understanding at the outset of the expectations of a high quality of installation; Acceptance testing procedures of the overall system and sub-systems prior to handover. It is important to include pro-forma test (or inspection) worksheets in the 55

62 tender documents to enable tenderers to anticipate the scope and level of detail that is required prior to acceptance. In addition, the procurement process would have to determine an overall process for selection of the preferred supplier for the contracts. We recommend the following option, provided that adequate project management support is given to the implementing agency: Tender with typical site information: The tender can be for example sites, as presented here, with a list of the full set of sites that must be served, without extensive site specific information at each site. The supplier can then be selected on the basis of the offer for the example sites. The contract can then be structured in such a way that other sites can be met using unit prices given in the initial tender, with contract variations. This approach requires less up-front specification, but will require closer management of the contractor. For simplicity and for ensuring responsibility for the overall process we recommend a bundled contract covering equipment supply, installation, training and maintenance. Monitoring and evaluation Monitoring and evaluation is critical to ensure the quality of the investments in an energy programme. Furthermore, the monitoring and evaluation is more important at the outset of the programme to allow adjustments and improvements as the implementation is rolled out. The overall responsibility for monitoring and evaluation of the programme could be carried out successfully by a suitable national body such as the ERB. They have the capacity and competence to undertake such a responsibility PV system design A detailed description of our recommendations is presented in Annex B: Model design. 5.2 ICT needs and solutions ICT services for health facilities The most important need for communication for health centres is emergency communications. Usually this means calling for an ambulance and most of the health centres visited used the HF radio more than once per day for this purpose. Other voice needs includes administrative messages such as calling for meetings or workshops, or requesting supplies such as medicine and vaccines. Some centres will let schools and villagers use the system to relay non-health related messages, e.g. information about funerals or missing examination papers. Over time, one can see the need for access to computers and internet at the health centres. The uses would involve at least some of the following: Computerized patient information system; access for reports and messages; Word processing and spreadsheet for budgeting and reports; Telemedicine ( ing pictures to experts for analysis and diagnosis); Access to web-based digital medical resources. 56

63 Possibly more important than access to computers are access to television. Many people emphasized the importance of access to TV as a way of recruiting and keeping staff. Hospitals Hospitals have more administrative responsibilities than health centres, and computerized information systems would probably be even more beneficial here than for the centres. Access to computer and internet would make participation in international collaboration programmes faster, cheaper, and probably more accurate. Also, as many mission hospitals are donor supported, there is a need to communicate with donors that are usually located abroad. Since international telephony is expensive, is the preferred method. access can also be the start for telemedicine services. Over time one could envision real-time remote diagnosis. 57

64 Table 5.4 ICT needs and supply solutions at health facilities Facility Need Solution Reliability/security Rural health post Emergency HF Radio High communication Rural health centre Rural zonal health centre District hospital Mission hospital Non-emergency communications All of the above in addition: Patient information system Send reports and messages Develop budgets and reports Access to digital resources As per Rural Health Centre HF radio, GSM (SMS or voice), PSTN Database All of the above in addition: Intra-hospital voice communications Payroll & accounting Telemedicine (not real time) Realtime telemedicine Word processing, spreadsheet www, , newsgroups Campus-wide telephony system Payroll & accounting software Video conferencing, high speed data access All of the needs from district hospital Donor communications , web, SMS, voice ICT services for educational facilities Low High Low Low Low Medium Medium While voice communications is the primary need for health services, the teachers and headmasters we spoke to were almost unanimous in their wish for access to computers and the internet. The following were the most mentioned reasons: Access to educational material. Most schools have few books, and they are often outdated. The web offers endless options for access to information. Several web sites publish content that is especially tailored for African schools. Also, the African Virtual University offers lectures over satellite networks. Teaching computing skills. Unemployment is high in Zambia, and ca 50 percent of the working population is employed in the formal sector. The knowledge of computing in general, and office applications in particular, will increase the students chances of formal employment and will over time increase the productivity of the nation. Communicating with other students and teachers. Many teachers and students expressed a wish to communicate across district and national borders. Basic access would High High Low 58

65 facilitate this. Many countries have implemented so called Learning Management Systems where access is bundled with calendar functions and virtual class rooms for chatting and sharing reports and essays. Schools also have a need for voice communications. This is especially important for boarding schools where the school is also the students home for a large part of the year. Table 5.5 ICT needs and supply solutions at educational facilities Facility Need Solution Reliability/security Basic schools Secondary schools Voice communications Access to educational material Communicating with other students and teachers GSM, PSTN, HF Radio www, , newsgroups www, , newsgroups All of the needs from basic schools in addition: Teaching computer skills Boarding schools Voice communications Maintenance and training needs PC, software, www & GSM, PSTN, HF Radio Medium Maintenance and training in relation to the PV systems needed for some of the communication solutions are discussed in the previous section. The focus of the present section is on maintenance and training in relation to computers. Computers in general, and shared computers in particular, require a minimum level of maintenance in order to work properly. Among the most important are: Data backup; Software upgrades; Low Low High Reinstallation of operating system and/or applications after computer crashes; User accounts management; Toner cartridge replacement for printers; Virus protection and removal; and File management. Zambian public schools and clinics have limited resources available. Thus, recurring costs should be kept to a minimum. One way of achieving this is to look into open source software that have no licence fees. Computer training can be implemented in several ways. One cost effective way is to develop a software-based course that can be stored on a CD-ROM and distributed with computers to schools and clinics. This could work well for people that have some exposure to computers. For people with no experience, the preferred solution would be to have some hands-on training by trained personnel. 59

66 The MoE has set up a training room with 20 computers in Lusaka, and administrators have already been trained on the Ministry s reporting system. In Chipata there is one school, Chipata Trades Training Institution, which offers computer training. Local IT companies could also be utilized. In any case, it is probably a good idea to dedicate one or two motivated teachers as ICT teachers and make sure that they know the most common applications and can solve the most common PC-related problems. Access to services Given the constrained resources of many Zambian schools, it is important to investigate ways of reducing the cost or sharing the cost of having computer and internet access. Two options are proposed below: The rural telecentre. Schools tend to use computers and internet access during the daytime, while private use mostly happens after working hours. Thus, one can imagine a place where students use the computer during the day while it functions as an internet café at night. One model is that the school lets an entrepreneur use schools facilities at night for an internet café. The payment could be that the PC is available for schools use during working hours. This opens up for employment opportunities and will probably have a positive impact on computer uptime. The Wizzy Digital Courier model. This company has developed software that collects all and web page request during the day, and dials one connection during off-peak hours. Zamtel s ISP price plan is a flat 200 kwacha per minute all day, so in Zambia there would be no savings from using the network at night unless a special deal is negotiated with Zamtel. There would be other savings since the line would be better utilized because all and web traffic would be squeezed together. This model would reduce the perceived service quality, especially for web browsing, but is a good alternative for schools which otherwise would not be able to afford an internet subscription. 60

67 6 Annex A: Social and policy context Zambia is a landlocked country with nine provinces, Northwestern, Western, Southern, Central, Copperbelt, Luapula, Northern, Eastern, and Lusaka and 72 districts, see Figure 6.1. It has a population of 10.5 million people, of which around seven million people live in rural areas. 26 The economy is predominantly dependent on the mining and agricultural sectors with the principal export good being copper and 85 percent of the labour force employed in agriculture. Figure 6.1 Zambia 26 Mbewe, A. (2004) Key Factors Affecting Dissemination of Modern Energy Services in Rural Zambia, AFREPREN Policy Brief. 61

68 Despite vast natural resources, Zambia has experienced declining living standards during the last three decades. The reasons behind this decline are poor macroeconomic management, import substitution policies, failure to diversify the economy and the resulting rising foreign debt and fiscal crises. Currently, the country is struggling to reach the HIPC completion point. 27, 28 Zambia is a poor country with 73 percent of the population below the national poverty line, i.e. the total poor. The total poor is equal to the sum of the extremely poor and the moderately poor. In Zambia, the poverty line is fixed at Zambian kwacha (K) 32,861 for extreme poverty. 29 People in households with a monthly income equal to or greater than K47,187 ( USD 10) are considered non-poor. Actually, Zambia has the highest level of income poverty in the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region, and in addition, the income distribution is highly unequal with a Gini coefficient of The distribution of total household monthly income by rural/urban, stratum and province 1998 is presented in Table 6.1. From Table 6.1 the overall mean monthly household income in Zambia is K204,621, which corresponds to approximately USD 44. Small-scale farmers have the lowest mean monthly household income corresponding to approximately USD 21 whereas large-scale farmers have the highest mean monthly income corresponding to approximately USD 870. However, smallscale farmers constitute 56 percent of all households in Zambia and large-scale farmers only 0.05 percent. When analysing the rural/urban situation it is clear that approximately 70 percent of all rural households, which constitute 64 percent of all households, have monthly incomes greater than USD 6 and 40 percent of the rural households have monthly incomes greater than USD HIPC initaitive = Heavily Indebted Poor Country initiative proposed by the World Bank and IMF and agreed by governments around the world in the fall of For the various stages see 29 Zambia PRSP (2002). USD 1 Zambian Kwacha (K)

69 Table 6.1 Percentage distribution of household monthly income in Zambia 1998 Income group (Zambian Kwacha (K); USD 1 = K4700) < Mean monthly income (K) Number of households All Zambia ,621 1,889,000 Rural/urban Total rural ,643 1,209,000 Total urban , ,000 Stratum Small scale farmers Medium scale farmers Large scale farmers Nonagricultural households Low cost areas Medium cost areas High cost areas Province ,702 1,054, ,492 29, ,087,453 1, , , , , ,816 88, ,181 93,000 Central , ,000 Copperbelt , ,000 Eastern , ,000 Luapula , ,000 Lusaka , ,000 Northern , ,000 Northwestern , ,000 Sothern , ,000 Western , ,000 Source: CSO: Living conditions in Zambia 1998 As in all countries, poverty is multifaceted and the distribution of poverty in the country is quite skewed. The provinces with the greatest incidence and distribution of poverty respectively are presented in Table 6.2. By distribution of poverty is meant the contribution by each province to the total national poverty. 63

70 Table 6.2 Poverty in Zambia, 1998 Incidence of poverty (Total poor) Western Luapula Northern Eastern Central Northwestern Southern Copperbelt Lusaka Source: CSO: Living conditions in Zambia 1998 Distribution of poverty Copperbelt Lusaka Eastern Southern Northern Central Western Luapula Northwestern As for the different components of poverty the same pattern as for overall incidence and distribution emerge with a skewed intra-district distribution see Table 6.3. Table 6.3 Poverty components in Zambian districts, 1998 Poverty component District (Province) Percent Lukulu (Western) 98.7 Chavuma (Northwestern) 95.2 Overall money-metric Milengi (Luapula) 94.7 poverty Shang ombo (Western) 94.0 Luangwa (Lusaka) 94.0 Luangwa (Lusaka) 94.0 Mpulungu (Northern) 79.0 Child stunting (height-forage) Kaoma (Western) 77.0 Mkushi (Central) 75.0 Samfya (Luapula) 75.0 Shang ombo (Western) 68.1 Mwinilunga (Northwestern) 53.8 Population with no Katete (Eastern) 49.4 education Petauke (Eastern) 49.2 Chadiza (Eastern) 48.1 Kazungula (Southern) 31.0 Lusaka (Lusaka) 29.5 Adult population that is Luangwa (Lusaka) 28.7 HIV positive Kitwe (Copperbelt) 28.7 Ndola (Coppebelt) 28.4 Source: Zambia PRSP (2002) In addition to the above, the population s access to various facilities (in terms of proximity) is an important indicator of the possibilities for reducing poverty and reaching the millennium development goals. For example, in the case of investments access to a credit market or bank is important and even though distance is not the only barrier to access it is an important one. 64

71 Similarly, distance to education and health facilities is an important determinant of access and hence also to the productivity potential of the population. A productive population, in terms of e.g. literacy and health, is important for making other services like energy and ICT available to the rural areas. Lack of skilled and healthy people decreases the potentials for making the services work efficiently by e.g. reducing the potential for proper management of the resources. In Zambia access to various facilities differ substantially across rural and urban areas see Table 6.4. Table 6.4 Percentage distribution of households by proximity to various facilities in Zambia 1998 Facility Bank All households Rural Urban Post Office All households Rural Urban Primary School All households Rural Urban Secondary School All households Rural Urban Health Facility All households Rural Urban Input Market All households Rural Urban Public Transport All households Rural Urban Police Station All households Rural Urban Hammer mill All households Rural Urban Source: CSO: Living conditions in Zambia 1998 Distance to facility 0-5 km 6-15 km 16 km Total number of households 1,889,000 1,209, ,000 1,889,000 1,209, ,000 1,889,000 1,209, ,000 1,889,000 1,209, ,000 1,889,000 1,209, ,000 1,889,000 1,209, ,000 1,889,000 1,209, ,000 1,889,000 1,209, ,000 1,889,000 1,209, ,000 Poverty reduction strategy paper (PRSP) and rural development There is a clear emphasis on the importance of enhancing rural development in Zambia but few explicit and concrete suggestions for how to make it happen. The PRSP acknowledges 65

72 that Zambia has a lot of arable land that is currently not utilised and that efforts must be made to encourage the establishment of farm-blocks and clusters of farm-blocks so as to realize the potentials embedded in this resource. Most of the discussion in the PRSP is cantered around creating opportunities for the rural communities to empower themselves and hence contribute to their own development. Thus, there are no specific PRSP strategies. Poverty reduction strategy paper (PRSP) and health and education Contrary to the situation regarding rural development, there are specific PRSP polices for the education sectors, but for the health sector there are priorities. For education, the six programmes that are targeted in the PRSP are (in the order of implementation): BESSIP extension Integrated functional literacy Skills training Equity High school improvement Tertiary education According to the PRSP, the strategies applied for implementing the above programmes are: Increased funding for the educational sector. Provision of quality and innovative training for teachers. Provision of competent and well-motivated teachers. Improvements in the conditions of service for teachers, in particular provision of a living wage, and housing - especially in rural areas, and for single female teachers. Provision of free and compulsory basic education for all. Passing of legislation to compel parents/guardians to send children to school. Development of a relevant, flexible, and innovative curriculum that will accommodate evolving development priorities, such as technology advancement, HIV/AIDS prevention, life skills, gender, environment, use of local languages for initial literacy, and topics relevant to local communities. Development of a national policy on the education of orphans. Ensuring special learning opportunities for out-of-school children and illiterate adults. Eliminating sources of educational disadvantage to enhance equity and equality of access, participation, and benefit for all, in accordance with individual abilities. Creating a conducive and enabling environment in all institutions to enhance standards of teaching and learning. Promoting and integrating the use of ICT at all levels and in all modes of the educational system. Development of an Early Childhood Care, Education and Development (ECCED) system, recognising its critical role in the development of mental, physical, and emotional capacities of children, thereby compensating for disadvantages. Improvements in the progression rates to high school - particularly for the poor and the girl child, and provision of quality and relevant high school education, which prepares 66

73 students for further education or employment through skills and entrepreneurship training. Building a responsive and effective planning and management system that can provide accurate data, and development of appropriate policies and strategies. Enhancing the capacity of tertiary institutions in generating and disseminating new knowledge. Increasing access of the poor and vulnerable to all educational institutions. Recognising the new image and role of the school as a centre for the dissemination of messages about HIV/AIDS, the environment, and civic issues, not only to its own students but also to the wider community. 6.1 Health The vision of the Zambian health sector reform as it is stated in the National Health Strategic Plan is to provide Zambians with equity of access to cost effective, quality health care as close to the family as possible. The overall health goals being a society in which Zambians create environments conducive to health, learn the art of being well and provide basic level health care for all. 30 The overall health sector goals are: To achieve equity in health opportunities through Provision and intensification of integrated services to vulnerable groups and underserved areas. Promotion of integrated nutrition packages. Promotion of family planning and effective education and social marketing for health. Assured access of health services using modalities such as health insurance, referral line by-pass fees and special waivers. Ensuring gender equity in service provision. To increase the life expectancy of Zambians through Effective prevention programmes for both communicable and non-communicable diseases. Effective programmes against common causes of morbidity and mortality. To create environments that support health through Promoting strong, supportive family relationships and communities. Ensuring safe working environments. Ensuring safe physical environments and health supportive habitats. Encouraging the establishment of private, parastatal, co-operative hospitals and centres and to review necessary legislation to facilitate this process. Observing economic development policies in support of health through resource (re-) allocation for improved health outcomes. 30 Zambia National Health Strategic Plan,

74 Promoting co-ordination and collaboration among agencies concerned with health, using social marketing and communication support strategies to place health on the public agenda so that the health goals become widely accepted. Review and enact all pieces of legislation and regulations for health. To encourage lifestyles that support health through Promoting healthy sexuality. Promoting individual hygienic practices and improved food habits. Programs to combat drug misuse, drug abuse, inappropriate use of alcohol and smoking. Encouraging increased physical activities and healthy social activities. Promoting safe driving and safe road traffic practices. Developing gender sensitive programmes that include prevention of violence and intimidation against women and children. To assure quality health services through Consolidation and rehabilitation of existing health facilities. Manpower development that responds directly to pressing needs, such as; expansion of medical and midwifery school facilities and intakes, opening a dental and pharmacy school, a postgraduate public health program and strengthening the functioning of community based health agents. Creating an environment conducive to the retention of trained health personnel. Ensuring availability of drugs and other medical supplies at all health care delivery points. The MoH/CBoH has developed new standards and norms, based on the package of care, for the basic physical infrastructure for health posts and rural health centres, see Table

75 Table 6.5 Equipment list for Health posts and rural Health Centres Health Post Rural Health Centre Description Qty Description Qty BP Machine 1 BP Machine 2 Thermometer 1 Thermometer 5 Stethoscope 1 Thermometer Jar 1 Tongue Depressor 1 Stethoscope 2 20 Mls Cup SS 1 Salter Scale 2 Buckets 1 Bathroom Scale 1 Measuring Jars SS 1 Medicine Trolley 1 Torch/Flashlight 1 Sterilizer Drum (S) 1 Bathroom Scale 1 Sterilizer Drum (M) 1 Vaginal Speculum 1 Bowl, Lotion (S) 1 Vaccine Carrier 1 Bowl, Lotion (M) 1 Brassier 1 Bowl, Lotion (L) 1 Forceps 1 Artery Forceps 3 StitchScissors 1 Sinus Forceps 3 Infant Weighing Scale 1 Toothed Dressing Forceps 3 Tape Measure 1 Cheatle Forceps Holder 3 Iodine Test Kit 1 Sponge Holding Forceps 3 Height Board 1 Dressing Forceps 3 Kidney Basin SS 1 Dressing Scissors 3 Round Basin 1 Needle Holding Forceps 2 Shovel 1 Stitch Scissors 3 Trowel (brick Making 1 Sims Vaginal Speculum 2 Pick 1 Instrument Tray (M) 1 Spirit Level 1 Instrument Tray (L) 1 Industrial Tape Measure 1 Sterilizer (S) 1 Hudson Spray 1 Pressure Cooker 1 Lovibond Comparator 1 Primus Stove 1 Wheel Barrow 1 Manual Suction Pump 1 Bed Screen 1 Ear Syringe 1 Axe 1 Diagnostic Set/otoscope 1 Instrument Trolley 1 Bed Pan 2 Furniture Male Urinals 3 Writing Table 1 Drip Stand 2 Office Chairs 2 Gallipots (M) 2 Hospital Bed 1 Gallipots (L) 2 69

76 Mattresses 1 Autoclave (Pot) 1 Examination Couch 1 Adult Ambu Bag 1 Drug Cabinet 1 Kidney Dish (M) 2 Delivery Bed 1 Kidney Dish (L) 2 Bench 1 Examination Couch 1 Linen Delivery Bed 1 Pillows 2 Foetoscope 2 Blankets 4 Delivery Set 1 Bedsheets 4 Manual Vacuum Pump 1 Pillow Cases 2 Infant Ambu Bag 1 Infant Weighing Scale 1 Hospital Beds 5 Matresses 5 Hospital Bed Sheets 15 Blankets 25 Bed Side Screen 2 Office Table 1 Kimolar R/L Forceps (set) 1 U/Insisor Forceps (set) 1 Dental Syringe 1 Probe 1 Mirror 1 Tweezers 1 Binocular Microscope 1 Manual Centrifuge 1 Water Filter 1 Portable Autoclave/P-Cooker 1 Tripple Beam Balance 1 Timer 1 Glucometer 1 Spirit Lamp 1 Haemoglobinometer 1 Lovibond Comparator 1 Hand Tally Counter 1 Staining Rods 2 Coupling Jar (E Grooves) 1 70

77 6.2 Education The MoE formulated its national educational policy entitled Educating our Future in This policy was designed to reform the education system in order to increase its capacity to deliver quality education services. From the policy, the MoE has developed a five-year strategic plan running from 2003 to The strategic plan covers all the sub sectors of the education system, i.e. Basic, High and Tertiary education, which also includes University education. This is contrary to the case of the previous programme, BESSIP, which targeted basic education only. 31 The vision of the Zambian education sector as it is formulated in the Ministry of Education Strategic Plan is Quality lifelong education for all, which is accessible, inclusive, equitable and relevant to individual, national, global needs and value systems. The overall education sector goals are: Access/Equity. Equitable access to education at all levels through formal and alternative modes of delivery in partnership with key stakeholders. Quality Quality and relevant education, which enhances knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and lifelong learning. Administration, financing and management An improved policy formulation, planning and information management environment. A sufficient, skilled and motivated human resource for the education system. A properly financed, professionally managed, accountable and cost-effective decentralised education delivery system. HIV/AIDS An education system that counters the HIV/AIDS pandemic and manages its impact on education delivery, poverty and gender inequity. From , the emphasis will be largely on basic schools (grades 1-9), and particularly expansion of enrolment to grades eight and nine. In addition, remote and disadvantaged areas will be specifically targeted for additional resource allocation, teacher deployment, and construction or rehabilitation of infrastructure. An analysis of districts will be undertaken to identify those districts and zones that need special targeting for education provision. 6.3 Links between poverty, education and health (HIV/AIDS) The relationship between poverty and health and poverty and education as well as between health and education are all circular in their nature. Poverty leads to deteriorated health through various channels. For example, poor people are not able to afford health care, neither preventive nor curative, nor are they able to afford good housing, nutritious food, or quality schooling. In turn, a bad health reduces labour and schooling productivity and further reduces 31 Ministry of Education, National Annual Work Plan

78 income, which perpetuates poverty. On the other hand, good health increases labour and schooling productivity, which increases income and enables household to acquire better food and health care. In addition, education enhances the ability of the individual to access health services provided by the state. For example, several studies confirm that better-educated people have lower rates of infection, and a study of 15- to 19-year-olds in Zambia found a marked decline in HIVprevalence rates among those with a medium to higher level of education but an increase among those with lower educational levels. During the 1990s the HIV-infection rate among women in Zambia fell by almost half among educated women, but there was little decline for women without any formal schooling. 32 In addition, the education of women is found to have a greater effect on children s health and schooling than the education of men. It also has significant effects on contraceptive behaviour and fertility, which are important, both for achieving a lower rate of population growth and for reducing the incidence of HIV/AIDS. Another noteworthy aspect, closely linked to the quality of education and the need for continuous training, is that around three quarters of the new teachers trained each year are needed to replace those who have died of AIDS Energy The pattern of energy expenditures manifests the poverty and inequality in Zambia. Lowincome households have to rely on a completely different set of energy carriers than the highincome households, see Table 6.6. Table 6.6 Energy carriers 34 Income group Energy form Low income Woodfuel, kerosene Medium income Woodfuel, candles, kerosene, charcoal High income Electricity, charcoal, candles, kerosene In 1994, the Zambian government introduced a Rural Electrification Fund (REF) through the National Energy Policy (NEP). The purpose was to supplement disbursements for rural electrification projects through grid extension. However, between 1994 and rural electrification projects were financed, constructed and commissioned but these projects did not cover major parts of rural Zambia. Even though all rural provincial centres have been electrified only 20 percent of the entire population has access to electricity. Biomass is the dominant energy source in rural areas and it accounts for about 72 percent of the total primary energy supply. The problem is not a shortage of energy since Zambia has excess capacity in its electricity generating system (e.g. 32 Nanda, P. (2000) Health Sector Reforms in Zambia. Implications for Reproductive Health and Rights, Center for Health and Gender Equity Working Papers. 33 Ibid. 34 Mbewe, A. (2002) Renewables and Energy for Rural Development in Zambia: Short Term Report, Working Paper No. 291, AFREPREN/FWD, Nairobi. 72

79 only about a quarter of the hydropower potential has been exploited) but rather a problem of taking energy resources to the areas of demand. According to Mbewe (2004) the following are key factors affecting energy service provision in rural Zambia: An inadequate rural energy policy. The current policy does not have an explicit focus on aspects important for rural areas. Lack of appropriate institutional structures. The centralized decision structure and lack of participation by local people in the choice and implementation of energy technologies creates bottlenecks for the success of rural energy initiatives. Limited funding of rural energy projects. Unfortunately rural energy initiatives do not seem prioritized in terms of meeting budget allocations and timely disbursements of funds, which implies that disbursements are frequently erratic and fall short of budgets. In addition to the above, the problems of insufficient focus on renewable energy initiatives and lack of skilled personnel have been emphasized as obstacles to success Institutional structure 35 The Ministry of Energy and Water Development (MEWD) has the overall responsibility of the energy and water sectors. The energy sector is governed in a centralized fashion; where the DoE has the responsibilities of energy planning, policy formulation, dissemination and implementation of energy programmes, see Figure 6.2. Figure 6.2 Energy institutional structure Ministry of Energy and Water Development (MEWD) Energy Regulation Board Departmet of Energy (DOE) Energy Utilities Oil marketing companies Zambia national oil co. Indeni petroleum Tazama pipelines ZESCO ZESCO is the national electricity utility and it is responsible for generation, transmission and distribution of electrical power. The entire electricity network in the country is run by ZESCO except Mulungushi mini hydro scheme, which is operated by a mining company. Isolated networks of diesel generating sets and mini hydros supply rural towns that are not connected to the national grid. However, contrary to the government institutional structure the utility structure is decentralized, with representation in all provincial towns. The MEWD has no institutional structure at local level to supervise implementation of energy projects. After the DOE has sub-contracted companies (e.g. ZESCO) for implementation - government responsibility ends. 35 Ibid. 73

80 The Eastern Province Contrary to the other provinces of Zambia, the institutional structure in the Eastern Province is characterised by three Energy Service Companies (ESCOs), i.e., CHESCO located in Chipata, NESCO locataed in Nyimba, and LESCO located in Lundazi. These ESCOs provide solar home systems (SHS) on a fee-per-service basis to households in the province. Approximately 450 systems have been installed and customers are paying K per month for ongoing support and maintenance. The ESCO project started in 1996 as an initiative from the Ministry of Energy and it was developed in co-operation with researchers from the Stockholm Environment Institute and funded from Sida from It has recently been decided that the ESCO project will be extended for an additional year, i.e. to June In addition, there are plans for replicating the ESCOs in other parts of the country if solutions for the initial funding can be found. 6.5 Communications industry overview The 1994 Telecommunications act established the CAZ, which is tasked with regulating the Zambian communications sector. The largest telecom company is Zamtel, which operates the wireline network. In addition to Zamtel there are two mobile network operators and a handful of internet service providers. Most growth in the communications sector has come from mobile telephony during the recent years. The non-incumbent network operators have mixed views on the regulatory situation. Several operators mentioned that CAZ is supportive with licenses for radio frequencies, and that fees for ISPs and internet cafes have been reduced. Another important development is that duty on communications equipment has been reduced from 25 percent to 10 percent on most types of equipment. However, the cooperation between Zamtel and the alternative mobile operators is not optimal. There are disputes over access to network resources (such as radio towers) and pricing of such access (interconnect agreements, digital lines). Zamtel retains monopoly over many services that are liberalized in many other markets, for example international voice traffic. Also, there is no local loop unbundling or alternative fixed line voice operators. 74

81 7 Annex B: Model design This section outlines some model design issues including: system configuration AC vs. DC, discrete vs. integrated multiuse systems and optimising the utilisation of solar PV systems. In general, an appropriate design for a solar PV programme for health and education in Zambia demands a good compromise between the ideal and the practical constraints in the system. For example, it is important to establish a design level for the required levels of energy service such as illumination levels which is comparable to that for grid-connected applications but for which the usage particularly the duration of use can be managed to be within the energy delivery capacity of the system. This ensures that off-grid systems are perceived to be as good as grid systems and the perceived hardship of postings (and the associated staff turnover) at rural institutions can be reduced. The model design must also address the specific requirements and constraints of each site. This includes the energy service needs, the experience and expectations of the users and the physical layout of the site. In addition and as set out in Section 5, the key to better quality maintenance regimes is the ability to aggregate the disparate maintenance requirements of electrical installations in health and education facilities (and domestic homes and private businesses) so as to reduce the overlaps and duplication of maintenance (and administration). A more detailed discussion of a standardised maintenance regime for routine and breakdown maintenance is included in Annex C: Technical specifications. 7.1 System options Discrete versus integrated systems The two main configuration options for solar PV systems are multiple discrete systems (also called standalone systems) or integrated multi-use systems, which tend towards hybrid or mini-grid configuration, see Table 7.1. Multiple discrete systems The benefits of this overall approach to system configuration include: simplicity, independence/security of supply (which is important for high priority services such as radio and vaccine refrigeration) and the ability to extend the capacity in small steps. This configuration also benefits from the potential for standardisation around a few sizes of systems and the use of one standardised 100 Ah 12 V battery block which is more easily transported and stored and consequently more generally available. The main disadvantage of 75

82 this approach is the inability to access the opportunity for utilizing the overall installed generation (and storage) capacity on site through the diversity of loads. Integrated multi-use systems The alternative solar PV system configuration is a single integrated multi-use system, which would typically be a larger AC system although small, prioritized DC loads such as radio and vaccine refrigeration could also be supplied. In this configuration the solar PV system supplies energy efficient AC loads through standard AC wiring and distribution system on site. This configuration has the advantages of a high level of utilisation of the overall generation (and storage) capacity and also of providing a high level of flexibility in terms of use of appliances. The main disadvantages are the need to invest in better design and implementation capacity and the, in a developing country context, complex and potentially difficult maintenance. Table 7.1 Characteristics of discrete vs. integrated systems Feature Discrete systems Integrated systems Flexibility of use Utilisation levels Security of supply System reliability Maintenance Safety Low due to limited range of appliances available for DC systems Lower utilization due to stranded spare capacity in under-utilised (but separate) systems Inherent security especially for essential services such as vaccine refrigeration High due to the simplicity of DC systems Simple, based on commonly available components especially batteries High due to the inherent safety of low-voltage DC systems Standardisation with accepted practice High due to wide range of energy efficient appliances available. Higher utilization due to pooling of generation and storage capacity Requires dedicated and prioritized load-shed protection Potentially lower depending on the quality of inverter and protection systems Complex and potentially difficult in a developing country context Moderate to low, depending on user awareness, due to the potential for lethal shocks from AC systems In Zambia, the benefits of simplicity for supply, installation and maintenance and lower cost of smaller discrete systems either DC or DC+AC preclude the use of larger integrated multi-use AC systems. Nevertheless, compliance with commonly accepted standards for supply, installation and maintenance of smaller DC and single outlet AC systems is recommended to ensure high levels of quality in supply, installation, reliability and safety. Standards and codes of practice for installation such as those incorporated in NRS 052 are useful documents in this regard. 76

83 7.2 Optimal system configuration in Zambia In examining the example sites visited in this project, and based on discussions with stakeholders, we recommend that multiple discrete solar PV systems be adopted as a standard system configuration in Zambia. In the health sector, this implies that dedicated discrete DC PV systems be adopted for the essential loads of HF radio communications and vaccine refrigeration whereas discrete DC systems which combine DC+AC supply be adopted to provide the non-essential energy service in the clinic and staff housing. Essential loads should be serviced by their own panel and battery system to ensure that the required reliability level is not affected by non-essential energy use. This complies with WHO/UNICEF requirements for vaccine refrigeration. A discrete system implies a DC approach with dedicated panel and battery bank. In the case of rural schools, the recommendation implies one system discrete DC+AC system per building with sizes of system dictated by the use of the building, such as a 1 2 classroom block or a 1 3 classroom block Description of options A range of system descriptions is suggested to establish a basis for programme design. These systems are categorized into Type X systems which are DC-only systems for critical energy services such as radio and vaccine refrigeration and Type Y systems, which are DC+AC systems, which provide DC lighting and a single AC power outlet for AC appliances. 77

84 Table 7.2 System descriptions Application Reference Description Dedicated DC applications Type X/1 12 V DC system; Wh/day or V for radio only. The charge controller for these systems must be rated for A on the load side to ensure that the radio can draw up to 30 A through the controller when transmitting Type X/2 12 V DC system; 1050 Wh/day or V for radio and vaccine refrigerator (in compliance with WHO/UNICEF specifications) Type X/3 12 V DC system; 200 Wh/day or V for 12 V DC lighting using a mix of 11 W and 18 W pendant-mounted luminaires. DC+AC systems Type X/4 Type Y/1 Type Y/2 Type Y/3 7.3 Sizing approach 12 V DC system; Wh/day or V for 12 V DC lighting using a mix of 11 W and 18 W pendant-mounted luminaires. 12 V DC and 220 V AC system; V DC and 220 V; for 2-bedroomed staff houses at rural health post 12 V DC and 220 V AC system; V DC and 220 V; for 1 x 2 class room blocks or for 3- bedroomed staff houses at schools 12 V DC and 220 V AC system; V DC and 220 V; for 1 x 3 class room blocks At present a major uncertainty in the optimal sizing of solar PV systems in Zambia is the limited data available for solar radiation levels across the country. The ZAMSIF procurement documents use a figure of 4.5 kwh/m 2 per day, which seems both simplistic and conservative. Appropriate sizing of solar PV systems is important for two reasons. Firstly, because inappropriately sized systems will not operate as expected or meet the desired levels of energy service provision and, secondly, because the costs of solar PV systems are high and any over sizing implies a waste of financial resources Solar radiation data Solar radiation data for Zambia is published by the World Meteorological Office 36 and is incorporated in sizing software such as RETScreen. 37 This data is generally applicable for horizontal surfaces. Ideally, the solar radiation data should be made available for tilted surfaces, preferably at 15 o to the horizontal, to enable solar PV systems to be sized better A - INFOCLIMA DATA CENTRE, Meteorological Department Zambia. Climatology & Advisory Services Division, P.O. Box 30200, Lusaka, Zambia and

85 Furthermore, the ratio of solar array to battery storage capacity for a particular system could be determined with more accuracy if the statistical probability of consecutive days of low levels of solar radiation were available for different climatic regions in the country. This is clearly not the case in Zambia. In the absence of accurate solar radiation data, a synthesized data set has been developed to obtain a better basis for assessing typical system sizes for the required energy demands see Figure 7.1. Data for Nelspruit, South Africa is included to establish a benchmark to higher quality data, which has been incorporated into Powacost 38 which allows more flexibility in determining the overall sizing of a solar PV system and the relative sizing of array and storage battery for a given level of availability, i.e. LOPP. Figure 7.1 Synthesized solar radiation data Global insolation [Wh/m^2/day] Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Month of the year Synthesized data for Lusaka RETScreen for Chipata RETScreen for Lusaka Nelspruit, South Africa Table Table 7.3 illustrates the likely data for Zambia based on the synthesis of available data on levels of solar radiation on the horizontal plane for Zambia (World Meteorological Office data for Lusaka), which are transformed to tilted surfaces based on SOLATILT data for a reference site. These data are intended to serve as an example of the likely levels and characteristics of solar radiation on tilted surfaces. 38 Developed and published in 1992 in the RAPS Design Manual by EDRC, University of Cape Town 79

86 Table 7.3 Solar radiation data for tilted surfaces Tilt 0 o 5 o 10 o 15 o 20 o 25 o 30 o 35 o Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Ave Min Note: A tilt of 20 degrees maximises annual energy, whereas lower tilts maximise the minimum monthly radiation Recommended sizing approach The sizing approach is based on a combination of the Ampere-hour Method (as set out in the ZAMSIF tender documents) and a computer-based sizing called Powacost. The use of the two methods allows corroboration of the sizing. The ampere-hour method is simple and reliable, although somewhat limited in its ability to provide a range of optimal combinations of array and battery storage combinations for a particular energy demand and LOPP. Powacost provides this flexibility but relies on solar radiation data for sites in Southern Africa, which exclude Zambia. Nevertheless, the Powacost flexibility enhances the sizing outputs derived from the ampere-hour method Comparison with Ah method The sizing approach used in the ZAMSIF specifications is a paper-based ampere-hour approach which yields reasonable results, but which is quite inflexible in optimizing the relative ratio between array size and effective battery storage capacity as a function of the expected availability of supply (i.e. the inverse of the loss of power probability). The table below compares sizing results using the Ah method with Powacost. Although the two methods result in similar array sizes, Powacost recommends a considerably smaller battery bank, suggesting that the simpler Ah method oversizes storage for the required security level. The difference in results is particularly acute for the refrigeration system, which has a higher specified level of security. 80

87 Table 7.4 Comparison of sizing results using Ah method and Powacost Health Sector Education sector OPD- LC1 In Patient Maternity Staff house Vaccine refrigerator Health post 1x2 CRB 1x3 CRB Staff house Dormitory Kitchen Ah sizing Energy for lighting (Wh) method Energy for refrigeration (Wh) Energy for plugs (Wh) Total energy (Wh) Ah/day Battery Ah efficiency (%) Wire efficiency (%) Corrected Ah/day Days of autonomy Depth of discharge 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% 50% Battery capacity (Ah) Peak sun hours (Wh) PV array derating (%) Array amp rating (A) Array sizing (Wp) Powacost Array size (Wp) sizing Battery capacity (Ah) Regulator Inverter capacity peak Average Powacost to Battery Size 96 % 97 % 97 % 97 % 77 % 97 % 97 % 97 % 97 % 97 % 97 % Ah sizing Array size 71 % 71 % 71 % 71 % 36 % 71 % 71 % 71 % 71 % 71 % 71 % 81

88 7.4 Standards There are a host of technical specifications, which have been developed over time for solar PV equipment and systems. 39 The Technical Committee 82 of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has developed technical specifications for PV systems 40 and system components. 41 Significantly, the PV-GAP programme attempts to provide a global framework for quality assurance of components and installation of solar PV systems. This report does not attempt to review all the available standards and specifications, but the following comments and recommendations are made with reference to the specific requirements for solar PV systems for health and education facilities in Zambia Overall Quality Assurance The issue of the provision of Quality Assurance for PV systems and PV programs is directly addressed at an international level by the QuaP-PV and PV-GAP 42 initiatives, which are supported (financially in part) by the World Bank. These two initiatives offer a holistic framework for understanding and approaching the issue of better levels of Quality Assurance for PV systems and PV programs. In addition, there is excellent technical review and support material for standards and technical specifications for PV systems within the International Energy Agency s (IEA s) Photovoltaic Power Systems Program (IEA-PVPS) Project specifications The project specifications, which are currently used in Zambia are those prepared and published by ZAMSIF. These project specifications are currently under review. 44 These documents have been prepared by a group of consultants, including staff from the University of Zambia. The MoE is using a modified version of the ZAMSIF project specifications Technical specifications In terms of specific standards and technical specifications for solar PV systems in Zambia, draft technical specifications have been developed in Zambia, under the auspices of the Zambia Bureau of Standards (ZBS) and the ERB. They include: These include: international standards such as the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC TC82) and QA programmes and guidelines such as PV-GAP and PVSDC IEA Task 9 (Deployment of Photovoltaic Technologies: Co- Operation with Developing Countries), country specifications such as those of the Zambian Bureau of Standards, SABS and others. IEC Terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) power generating systems General and guide; IEC/PAS ( ) Specifications for the use of renewable energies in rural decentralised electrification. IEC Crystalline silicon terrestrial photovoltaic (PV) modules Design qualification and type approval. IEC Secondary cells and batteries for solar photovoltaic energy systems General requirements and methods of test Comments on the procurement document by ZAMSIF for the TENDER FOR THE SUPPLY AND INSTALLATION OF SOLAR SYSTEMS FOR LIGHTING AND ENERGIZING INVERTER POWERED APPLIANCES TO EIGHTY (80NO.) PRIMARY SCHOOLS AND FOUTY FOUR (44NO.) HEALTH CENTER IN VARIOUS PROVINCES OF ZAMBIA, World Bank, June

89 Zambian Standard Specification DZS 406: 2000, photovoltaic modules Zambian Standard Specification DZS 404: 2000, charge regulators for photovoltaic systems using lead-acid batteries Zambian Standard Specification DZS 403: 2000, batteries for use in photovoltaic systems Zambian Standard Specification DZS 407: 2000, fluorescent lights for use in photovoltaic systems However, there are no Zambian standards for inverters and the standards listed above are currently not finalised and have not been published by the ZBS. They are at present not considered appropriate for use as reference standards in project documents for solar PV programmes in Zambia Comments on standards and technical specifications for system components A detailed review of standards and technical specifications for solar PV systems is included in Survey of National and International Standards Guidelines and QA Procedures for Standalone PV Systems 45 published in 2000 by the IEA-PVPS initiative. In Zambia, lessons should be learned from the experience of the documents issued in China for procurement of solar systems for 15 schools in Yunnan and Hainan Provinces in the Peoples Republic of China and the recent procurements using the ZAMSIF documents. New documents should be prepared, which incorporate the system designs that are based on those suggested in this report and which also specify the contractual basis for a BOTT arrangement. PV modules The international reference standard specification is IEC ( ), and it is recommended that crystalline modules that comply with IEC be specified. In addition, the EU has just published a PV standard, EN50380, entitled Datasheet and nameplate information for photovoltaic modules which may also be applicable but which has not been reviewed within the context of this report. Solar battery charge controllers There are no IEC specifications, which describe functionality or operational aspects of charge controllers. The only directly relevant IEC standard specification is IEC ( ) - Photovoltaic systems - Power conditioners - Procedure for measuring efficiency. The NRS specifies the test procedures for regulators for use in photovoltaic systems of nominal DC voltage of 12 V (with provisions for higher voltages) and maximum currents of up to 15 A. Charge controllers must be supplied with charge and discharge voltage set points, which match the battery requirements to ensure adequate protection and cycling regimes. In the case of systems that incorporate an inverter it is essential that the battery is protected against deep discharges by means of an AC load-shed protection device. 45 IEA PVPS T3-7:

90 Electrical storage batteries There are many standard specifications for batteries. The primary IEC specification is IEC Secondary cells and batteries for solar photovoltaic energy systems General requirements and methods of test. EN Safety Requirements for Secondary Batteries and Battery Installations: Part 2 Stationary Batteries is a European Standard, which deals with safety issues. Other relevant and applicable standards include IEEE (R1993) IEEE Recommended Practice for Installation and Maintenance of Lead Acid Batteries for PV Systems and IEEE IEEE Recommendation Practice for Sizing Lead Acid Batteries for PV Systems (ANSI). The Australian Standards for batteries in PV systems are also relevant as reference standards. In practice, despite the benefits of longer battery life and greater reliability of tubular plate, flooded electrolyte lead acid batteries for solar applications, it is recommended that 12 V solar batteries are specified in the Zambian case due to the need to standardise on a battery which is generally available in Zambia and which is easily transported. Until further research into batteries is undertaken, the lead-calcium maintenance-free solar batteries are recommended with the charge controller load-shed settings to limit the depth of discharge to 50%. These batteries should have threaded terminal posts to discourage users from 'borrowing' the solar batteries for other applications such as cars, tractors and trucks. Inverters There are no specific IEC standards for inverters. 46 However, IEC (mentioned above under charge controllers) is applicable to determine the efficiency of inverters. Lightning Lightning is prevalent in Zambia and consequently it is necessary to consider means of minimising the risks of damage to PV systems due to surges or direct strikes. The IEA-PVPS has published a useful reference for consideration in the Zambian programme. 47 Vaccine refrigerators The Cold Chain Manager in the MoH has standardised on the Electrolux RCW 50 DC vaccine refrigerator for use in Rural Health Posts and Health Centres in Zambia. This appliance is a WHO/EPI approved refrigerator that is capable of ice-pack freezing and vaccine storage. However, the WHO/ UNICEF product guide lists of 2000, lists the following alternative vaccine refrigerators: Norcoast Model NRC WHO / UNICEF code PISE3/65-M Norcoast Model NRC WHO / UNICEF code PISE3/92-M Fortum AES Model CFS49 ISI WHO / UNICEF code PISE3/70-M SunFrost Model RFVB 134a WHO / UNICEF code PISE3/77-M Dulas Model VC-150 F WHO / UNICEF code PISE3/79-M Electrolux Model RCW 42DC WHO / UNICEF code PISE3/31-M A standard specification is under development, namely, IEC Electrical safety of static inverters and charge controllers for use in photovoltaic (PV) power systems - Part 3: Controllers Report IEA PVPS T3-14: 2003, Common practices for protection against the effects of lightning on stand-alone photovoltaic systems, October

91 Electrolux Model RCW 50DC WHO / UNICEF code PISE3/93-M BP Solar VR50 WHO / UNICEF code PISE3/37-M Tata TBP VR50 WHO / UNICEF code PISE3/83-M Comesse Soudure SA WHO / UNICEF code PISE3/76-M Solamatics PVR 150 WHO / UNICEF code PISE3/101-M Other appliances All lighting is suggested to be screw mounted 11 or 18 W compact fluorescents providing 600 and 1000 lumens respectively. All lights are to be individually switched and mounted at 2100 mm above ground level on pendant fittings with shades to bring the light closer to the point of use Code of practice for installation The Certification for the PV Installation and Maintenance Practitioner 48 published by the QuaP-PV is relevant to the current program in Zambia. This document outlines the issues of quality and certification and then sets out: The establishment of a PV practitioner certification infrastructure; Procedures for accreditation of training programmes; Procedures for certification of practitioners; Implementation exercises and review. Similarly, the Practice Guide of the IEA-PVPS Task 9 on Quality Management 49 emphasizes the need for good installation practice. This is spelled out in terms of: Who benefits from quality management and compliance with standards; Quality management; Hardware quality: Certification of products; Training and Practitioner quality: Accreditation and certification. Additional documents which are applicable in Zambia include Section 5 of the NRS-052-1:1999 (which will be incorporated in SABS/STANSA 0334 Solar Home Specification) and the latest edition of the Code of Practice for Installation of PV Systems in Botswana Fitzgerald M, (2001), Certification for the PV Installation and Maintenance Practitioner, QuaP-PV, The World Bank IEA (2003), The role of Quality Management, Hardware Certification and Accredited Training in PV Programmes in Developing Countries Recommended Practices, IEA-PVPS Task 9, T9-04:2003, 50 Available from Botswana Technology Centre, BOTEC. 85

92 86

93 8 Annex C: Technical specifications 8.1 Purpose and use of these specifications This Annex sets out the basis for the preparation of the technical specifications for a procurement process. The specifications have been prepared for example facilities, based on the places visited during fieldwork for this project. The specifications are broken into three areas: Equipment specifications; Installation and initial training; Maintenance and on-going training. The equipment specifications are given for different types of health and educational facilities. We provide a description of The example location that the specification is based on; An overall description of the system; Service requirements; Technical specification of the system; Bill of quantities and estimated cost (including installation and initial training). This report does not suggest specific solar PV systems for Secondary Schools. At present, there is apparently no policy on behalf of the MoE for solar electrification for Secondary Schools - the immediate focus is on Basic Schools. In addition, there is less standardisation of design and site layout among Secondary Schools, which makes sizing and design unreliable at this stage. The electricity load demand calculations, solar PV sizing and the budget costs for solar PV systems in this report are based on the data which were available to the project team during the course of the field work and also on assumptions based on the experience of the team. These data and assumptions would need to be confirmed during the course of the subsequent steps of programme design to check that they are accurate. The present levels of accuracy are estimated to be in the range of +/- 10 percent and should be treated with this level of confidence. 87

94 For the equipment specifications to be utilised in a procurement process, we recommend that lessons should be learned from the experience of the documents issued in China for procurement of solar systems for 15 schools in Yunnan and Hainan Provinces in the Peoples Republic of China and the recent procurements using the ZAMSIF documents. New documents should be prepared, which incorporate the system designs that are based on those suggested in this report and which also specify the contractual basis for a BOTT arrangement. 8.2 Equipment specifications For all facilities where radios and/or computer are recommended as solutions the following technical specifications should be met: Radio specifications for the various facilities are as follows for HF radios: Rugged design for reliable service even in remote areas At least 10 channel field programmable memory for frequency, mode and RF power setting Simple to operate with a minimum of training Adjustable RF power output in four increments: 15 W, 25 W, 50 W and 100 W Internal and external antenna tuner options Support for data communications Computers (PCs). New PCs should be able to run Windows XP and the most popular Linux distributions. PC with 300 MHz or higher processor clock speed recommended; 233 MHz minimum required 128 megabytes (MB) of RAM or higher recommended; 64 MB minimum required 1.5 gigabytes (GB) of available hard disk space Super VGA ( ) or higher-resolution video adapter and monitor CD-ROM or DVD drive Keyboard and mouse For internet access the PC needs a modem suitable for the access network. There are modems or network cards available for PSTN, GSM, VSAT and WLAN access. The use of a UPS is essential to ensure PC integrity in areas with variable power supply quality Health Post Site description The typical Health Post comprises three buildings a two-roomed health post building, a two bedroomed staff house and an outside cooking room. The health post has a borehole, which is equipped with a hand pump. System description A combination of Type X systems and a Type Y solar PV system. A solar PV system for water pumping is optional but not specified here. The Type X systems comprise two discrete 12 V DC solar PV systems, which supply an HF radio and 12 V DC lighting through DC wiring. A discrete Type Y/1 DC+AC solar PV 88

95 system supplies 12 V DC lighting and limited 220 V AC power for AC loads in the staff house. Note that there is no provision made for a vaccine refrigerator at a health post, as this does not form part of the CBoH s standard equipment list (see Table 6.5). 89

96 Service requirements Load description Lighting level Floor area Q ty AC /DC Unit load Total load Daily duty cycle Weekly duty cycle Wiring efficiency Average load lux m^2 Watts Watts hours/day days/week % Wh/day Ah/day Lighting Health post Registration / admin DC Treatment room DC Store / dispensary DC Waiting / educationporch DC Subtotal Health staff house Bedroom DC Bedroom DC Living room DC Kitchen DC Porch DC Subtotal Lighting totals HF radio tranceiver n/a n/a 1 DC Plug points TV Living room 1 AC Music system Living room 1 AC Subtotal Note: System configuration: Type X and Y; discrete DC and DC + AC systems per building. Nominal system voltage is 12V. 90

97 Technical specifications The Type X/1 system for the radio comprising: 75 Wp array comprising one crystalline solar PV module V lead calcium maintenance-free solar battery 20 A charge 12 V balance of system materials including: mounting structure, battery box, battery fuse, wiring, O&M manual The Type X/3 system for the 12 V DC lighting in the health post comprising: 75 Wp array comprising one crystalline solar PV module V lead calcium maintenance-free solar battery 6 A charge 12 V 11 W and 18 W DC compact fluorescent lamps with shades as required Balance of system materials including: mounting structure, battery box, battery fuse, wiring, O&M manual The Type Y/1 system for 12 V DC lighting and basic 220 V AC loads in the staff house comprising 150 Wp array comprising crystalline solar PV modules V lead calcium maintenance-free solar battery 15 A charge 12 V 100 VA modified sine wave inverter for AC loads 11 W and 18 W DC compact fluorescent lamps with shades as required Balance of system materials including: mounting structure, battery box, battery fuse, wiring, O&M manual Bill of quantities and estimated cost The bill of quantities is based on sizing of the PV system based on the average electricity demand. 91

98 System type: X/1: Communication radio Item unit price number Total USD USD PV modules 75 Wp module Wp module PV array mounting structure galvanised mild steel - one module galvanised mild steel - four modules 85 0 Array interconnects n/a Array junction box IP Batteries V maintenance free V tubular plate, flooded V tubular plate, flooded V tubular plate, flooded Battery interconnects n/a 5 0 Battery box small large Battery fuse 30 A Battery fuseholder Charge controller 6 A A A A Inverter 150 VA VA VA VA Wiring 2.5 mm^ mm^ mm^ mm^ mm^ Lights 11 Watt / 600 lumen CFL Watt / 1000 lumen CFL 30 0 Switchgear n/a Conduit 20 mm upvc Saddles 0 Warning signs User manual O&M manual Spares assorted per 10 Type X systems assorted per 10 Type Y systems Sub-total for materials 1091 Transport per 10 systems Installation per 10 small Type X systems per 10 large Type X systems per 10 Type Y systems Training per 10 systems Sub-total for installation 350 TOTAL

99 System type: X/3: DC lighting system Item unit price number Total USD USD PV modules 75 Wp module Wp module PV array mounting structure galvanised mild steel - one module galvanised mild steel - four modules 85 0 Array interconnects n/a Array junction box IP Batteries V maintenance free V tubular plate, flooded V tubular plate, flooded V tubular plate, flooded Battery interconnects n/a 5 0 Battery box small large Battery fuse 30 A Battery fuseholder Charge controller 6 A A A A Inverter 150 VA VA VA VA Wiring 2.5 mm^ mm^ mm^ mm^ mm^ Lights 11 Watt / 600 lumen CFL Watt / 1000 lumen CFL Switchgear n/a Conduit 20 mm upvc Saddles 0 Warning signs User manual O&M manual Spares assorted per 10 Type X systems assorted per 10 Type Y systems Sub-total for materials 1411 Transport per 10 systems Installation per 10 small Type X systems per 10 large Type X systems per 10 Type Y systems Training per 10 systems Sub-total for installation 350 TOTAL

100 System type: Type Y/1 System for 2-bedroome d health staff house Item unit price Num Total USD USD PV modules 75 Wp module Wp module PV array mounting structure galvanised mild steel - one module 35 0 galvanised mild steel - four modules Array interconnects n/a Array junction box IP Batteries V maintenance free V tubular plate, flooded V tubular plate, flooded V tubular plate, flooded Battery interconnects n/a Battery box small 15 0 large Battery fuse 30 A Battery fuseholder Charge controller 6 A A A A Inverter 150 VA VA VA VA Wiring 2.5 mm^ mm^ mm^ mm^ mm^ Lights 11 Watt / 600 lumen CFL Watt / 1000 lumen CFL Switchgear n/a Conduit 20 mm upvc Saddles 0 Warning signs User manual O&M manual Spares assorted per 10 Type X systems assorted per 10 Type Y systems Sub-total for materials 2191 Transport per 10 systems Installation per 10 small Type X systems per 10 large Type X systems per 10 Type Y systems Training per 10 systems Sub-total for installation 450 TOTAL

101 Table 8.1 Summary of service requirements and costs Load description Q ty AC /DC HEALTH POST W Wh/day Ah/day Lighting Registration / admin 2 DC Treatment room 2 DC Store / dispensary 1 DC Waiting / educationporch 1 DC Health staff house Bedroom 1 Unit load Average load Costs (USD) a 1 DC Bedroom 2 1 DC Living room 1 DC Kitchen 1 DC Porch 1 DC Plug points TV Living room 1 AC Music system Living room 1 AC Materials b Transport and installation c Training Subtotal HF radio transceiver d 1 DC TOTAL excluding staff house TOTAL with one staff house a: These figures are indicative and will need to be refined during detailed programme design and implementation. b: Including PV system, lights, wiring, battery, user manuals, O&M manuals and spares c: Estimates for installation and training are based on a contractor having a certain minimum number of installations in a region - one off installations would probably be more expensive. d: The figures for the communication radio excludes the radio itself, see Table 3-8 for details. 95

102 8.2.2 Rural Health Centre Site description The Typical Rural Health Centre comprises multiple buildings an outpatient s dept., in-patients dept., laboratory, maternity, relative s shelter and a number of staff houses. Health Centres also have at least one borehole, which is usually equipped with a hand pump. System description A combination of different size Type X systems and a Type Y/1 system. A solar PV system for water pumping is optional but not specified here. The Type X systems comprise two discrete 12 V DC solar PV systems, which supply an HF radio and an Electrolux RCW 50 DC vaccine refrigerator and a number of 12 V DC lighting systems for buildings on the site. The Type Y/1 system is a DC+AC solar PV system supplying 12 V DC lighting and some 220 V AC electrical power for small AC appliances through a single AC outlet. 96

103 Service requirements Load description Lighting level Floor area Q ty AC or DC Unit load Total load Daily duty cycle Weekly duty cycle Wiring efficiency Average load lux m^2 Watts Watts hrs/day days/week % Wh/day Ah/day Lighting OPD-LC1 Registration DC ,1 4,5 Administration DC ,2 1,4 Solar equipment room DC ,7 0,1 Opposite room DC ,7 0,1 Screening / ,7 4,1 counselling DC 95 Treatment room DC ,1 6,1 Examination room DC ,7 4,1 Waiting / education DC ,9 3,2 MCH DC ,6 3,4 Corridor DC ,2 1,9 Subtotal In Patient Male isolation ward DC ,9 1,6 Female isolation ward DC ,9 1,6 Male ward DC ,9 3,2 Female ward DC ,8 6,3 Corridor DC ,2 1,9 Subtotal Maternity Assisted bath DC ,8 0,5 Sluice DC ,9 0,2 Store DC ,7 0,1 Delivery room DC ,4 13,5 Corridor DC ,2 1,9 Subtotal Health staff Bedroom DC ,7 2,9 97

104 house 1-5 Bedroom DC ,7 2,9 Bedroom DC Living room DC ,8 6,3 Kitchen DC ,3 3,9 Porch DC ,7 2,9 Subtotal Male bedroom DC ,2 6,8 Female bedroom DC ,2 6,8 Relatives Male porch DC ,5 1,4 shelter Female porch DC ,5 1,4 Subtotal Lighting Totals HF radio transceiver n/a n/a 1 DC WHO/EPI approved refrigerator n/a n/a 1 DC Plug points TV Living room 1 AC ,1 8,9 Music system Living room 1 AC ,9 3,6 Subtotal Note: System configuration: Type X and Y; discrete DC and DC + AC systems per building. Nominal system voltage is 12V. 98

105 Technical specifications A Type X/1 system for the radio comprising: 75 Wp array comprising one crystalline solar PV module V lead calcium maintenance-free solar battery 20 A charge 12 V Balance of system materials including: mounting structure, battery box, battery fuse, wiring, O&M manual A Type X/2 system for the vaccine refrigerator system (excluding excludes the cost of a solar vaccine refrigerator) comprising: 375 Wp array comprising crystalline solar PV modules V lead calcium maintenance-free solar batteries 30 A charge 12 V Balance of system materials including: mounting structure, battery box, battery fuse, wiring, O&M manual Three Type X/3 systems for the 12 V DC lighting in the in-patient department, the maternity building, and the relatives shelter each comprising: 75 Wp array comprising one crystalline solar PV module V lead calcium maintenance-free solar battery 6 A charge 12 V 11 W and 18 W DC compact fluorescent lamps with shades as required Balance of system materials including: mounting structure, battery box, battery fuse, wiring, O&M manual One Type X/4 systems for the 12 V DC lighting in the out-patient department comprising: 120 Wp array comprising one crystalline solar PV module V lead calcium maintenance-free solar battery 10 A charge 12 V 11 W and 18 W DC compact fluorescent lamps with shades as required Balance of system materials including: mounting structure, battery box, battery fuse, wiring, O&M manual The Type Y/1 system for 12 V DC lighting and basic 220 V AC loads in the staff house comprising 150 Wp array comprising crystalline solar PV modules V lead calcium maintenance-free solar battery 15 A charge 12 V 11 W and 18 W DC compact fluorescent lamps with shades as required 99

106 100 VA modified sine wave inverter for AC loads Bill of quantities and estimated cost The bill of quantities is based on sizing of the PV system based on the average electricity demand. System type: X/1: Communication radio Item unit price Num. Total USD USD PV modules 75 Wp module Wp module PV array mounting galvanised mild steel - one module structure galvanised mild steel - four modules 85 0 Array interconnects n/a Array junction box IP Batteries V maintenance free V tubular plate, flooded V tubular plate, flooded V tubular plate, flooded Battery interconnects n/a 5 0 Battery box small large Battery fuse 30 A Battery fuseholder Charge controller 6 A A A A Inverter 150 VA VA VA VA Wiring 2.5 mm^ mm^ mm^ mm^ mm^ Lights 11 Watt / 600 lumen CFL Watt / 1000 lumen CFL 30 0 Switchgear n/a Conduit 20 mm upvc Saddles 0 Warning signs User manual O&M manual Spares assorted per 10 Type X systems assorted per 10 Type Y systems Sub-total for materials 1091 Transport per 10 systems Installation per 10 small Type X systems

107 per 10 large Type X systems per 10 Type Y systems Training per 10 systems Sub-total for installation 350 TOTAL

108 System type: X/2: Vaccine refrigerator system Item unit price number total USD USD PV modules 75 Wp module Wp module PV array mounting structure galvanised mild steel - one module 35 0 galvanised mild steel - four modules Array interconnects n/a Array junction box IP Batteries V maintenance free V tubular plate, flooded V tubular plate, flooded V tubular plate, flooded Battery interconnects n/a 5 0 Battery box small 15 0 large Battery fuse 30 A Battery fuseholder Charge controller 6 A A A A Inverter 150 VA VA VA VA Wiring 2.5 mm^ mm^ mm^ mm^ mm^ Lights 11 Watt / 600 lumen CFL Watt / 1000 lumen CFL 30 0 Switchgear n/a Conduit 20 mm upvc Saddles 0 Warning signs User manual O&M manual Spares assorted per 10 Type X systems assorted per 10 Type Y systems Sub-total for materials 4194 Transport per 10 systems Installation per 10 small Type X systems per 10 large Type X systems per 10 Type Y systems Training per 10 systems Sub-total for installation 450 TOTAL

109 System type: X/3: DC lighting system (e.g. relatives shelter) Item unit price number total USD USD PV modules 75 Wp module Wp module PV array mounting structure galvanised mild steel - one module galvanised mild steel - four modules 85 0 Array interconnects n/a Array junction box IP Batteries V maintenance free V tubular plate, flooded V tubular plate, flooded V tubular plate, flooded Battery interconnects n/a 5 0 Battery box small large Battery fuse 30 A Battery fuseholder Charge controller 6 A A A A Inverter 150 VA VA VA VA Wiring 2.5 mm^ mm^ mm^ mm^ mm^ Lights 11 Watt / 600 lumen CFL Watt / 1000 lumen CFL Switchgear n/a Conduit 20 mm upvc Saddles 0 Warning signs User manual O&M manual Spares assorted per 10 Type X systems assorted per 10 Type Y systems Sub-total for materials 1407 Transport per 10 systems Installation per 10 small Type X systems per 10 large Type X systems per 10 Type Y systems Training per 10 systems Sub-total for installation 350 TOTAL

110 System type: X/4: DC lighting system Item unit price number total USD USD PV modules 75 Wp module Wp module PV array mounting structure galvanised mild steel - one module galvanised mild steel - four modules 85 0 Array interconnects n/a Array junction box IP Batteries V maintenance free V tubular plate, flooded V tubular plate, flooded V tubular plate, flooded Battery interconnects n/a Battery box small 15 0 large Battery fuse 30 A Battery fuseholder Charge controller 6 A A A A Inverter 150 VA VA VA VA Wiring 2.5 mm^ mm^ mm^ mm^ mm^ Lights 11 Watt / 600 lumen CFL Watt / 1000 lumen CFL Switchgear n/a Conduit 20 mm upvc Saddles 0 Warning signs User manual O&M manual Spares assorted per 10 Type X systems assorted per 10 Type Y systems Sub-total for materials 2305 Transport per 10 systems Installation per 10 small Type X systems per 10 large Type X systems per 10 Type Y systems Training per 10 systems Sub-total for installation 450 TOTAL

111 System type: Y/1: DC+AC system for 3-bedroomed health staff house Item unit price Num Total USD USD PV modules 75 Wp module Wp module PV array mounting galvanised mild steel - one module 35 0 structure galvanised mild steel - four modules Array interconnects n/a Array junction box IP Batteries V maintenance free V tubular plate, flooded V tubular plate, flooded V tubular plate, flooded Battery interconnects n/a Battery box small 15 0 large Battery fuse 30 A Battery fuseholder Charge controller 6 A A A A Inverter 150 VA VA VA VA Wiring 2.5 mm^ mm^ mm^ mm^ mm^ Lights 11 Watt / 600 lumen CFL Watt / 1000 lumen CFL Switchgear n/a Conduit 20 mm upvc Saddles 0 Warning signs User manual O&M manual Spares assorted per 10 Type X systems assorted per 10 Type Y systems Sub-total for materials 2217 Transport per 10 systems Installation per 10 small type X systems per 10 large type X systems per 10 Type Y systems Training per 10 systems Sub-total for installation 450 TOTAL

112 Table 8.2 Summary of service requirements and costs Load description Q ty AC/ DC Unit load Average load Costs (USD) a RURAL HEALTH CENTRE W Wh/day Ah/day Materials b Transport and installation c Training Subtotal Lighting OPD-LC1 Registration 2 DC 18 54,1 4,5 Administration 2 DC 18 16,2 1,4 Solar equipment room 1 DC 11 1,7 0,1 Opposite room 1 DC 11 1,7 0,1 Screening / counselling 2 DC 18 48,7 4,1 Treatment room 3 DC 18 73,1 6,1 Examination room 2 DC 18 48,7 4,1 Waiting / education 1 DC 18 37,9 3,2 MCH 1 DC 18 40,6 3,4 Corridor 1 DC 11 23,2 1,9 Subtotal In Patient Male isolation ward 1 DC 18 18,9 1,6 Female isolation ward 1 DC 18 18,9 1,6 Male ward 2 DC 18 37,9 3,2 Female ward 4 DC 18 75,8 6,3 Corridor 1 DC 11 23,2 1,9 Subtotal Maternity Assisted bath 1 DC 11 5,8 0,5 Sluice 1 DC 11 2,9 0,2 Store 1 DC 11 1,7 0,1 Delivery room 4 DC ,4 13,5 Corridor 1 DC 11 23,2 1,9 Subtotal

113 Health staff house 1-5 Bedroom 1 1 DC 11 34,7 2,9 Bedroom 2 1 DC 11 34,7 2,9 Bedroom 3 1 DC Living room 1 DC 18 75,8 6,3 Kitchen 1 DC 11 46,3 3,9 Porch 1 DC 11 34,7 2,9 Plug points TV Living room 1 AC ,1 8,9 Music system Living room 1 AC 20 42,9 3,6 Subtotal Male bedroom 2 DC 18 81,2 6,8 Relatives Female bedroom 2 DC 18 81,2 6,8 shelter Male porch 1 DC 11 16,5 1,4 Female porch 1 DC 11 16,5 1,4 Subtotal HF radio transceiver d 1 DC WHO/EPI approved refrigerator e 1 DC TOTAL excluding staff house TOTAL with one staff house TOTAL with five staff houses a: These figures are indicative and will need to be refined during detailed programme design and implementation. b: Including PV system, lights, wiring, battery, user manuals, O&M manuals and spares c: Estimates for installation and training are based on a contractor having a certain minimum number of installations in a region - one off installations would probably be more expensive. d: The figures for the communication radio excludes the radio itself, see Table 3-8 for details. e: The figures for vaccine refrigeration excludes the refrigerator. 107

114 8.2.3 Basic school Site description The typical Basic School comprises multiple buildings two school buildings with five classrooms altogether and five staff houses. The school would have a borehole which is equipped with a hand pump. System description Three Type Y systems of different sizes supplying 12 V DC lighting and limited 220 V AC electrical power through a single AC outlet for small AC appliances such as TV s. 108

115 Service requirements Load description Lighting level Floor area Q ty AC /DC Unit load Total load Daily duty cycle Weekly duty cycle Wiring eff. Ave. Load lux m^2 Watts Watts hrs/day days/wk % Wh/day Ah/day Lighting Class room DC ,6 20,3 1x2 Class room Class room DC ,6 20,3 block Office DC ,3 9,0 sub-totals Class room DC ,6 20,3 Class room DC ,6 20,3 1x3 Class room Class room DC ,6 20,3 block Office DC ,3 9,0 sub-totals Bedroom DC ,8 4,7 Bedroom DC ,8 4,7 Bedroom DC ,8 4,7 Kitchen DC ,6 12,6 Dining / living ,6 12,6 room DC Passage DC ,6 1,0 Staff house 1-5 Outside area DC ,3 0,7 sub-totals Lighting Totals Plug points 1x2 Class room block: Various office 1 AC x3 Class room block: Various office 1 AC Staff house: TV 1 AC

116 Living room Staff house: Living room Music system 1 AC Sub-totals Note: System configuration: Type X and Y; discrete DC and DC + AC systems per building. Nominal system voltage is 12V. 110

117 Technical specifications The three Type Y systems of two sizes are specified to suit the load demands in the different buildings. Two Type Y/2 systems for 12 V DC lighting and basic 220 V AC loads in the 1 x 2 classroom block and 3-bedroomed staff house comprises: 240 Wp array comprising crystalline solar PV modules V lead calcium maintenance-free solar battery 25 A charge 12 V 11 W and 18 W DC compact fluorescent lamps with shades as required 100 VA modified sine wave inverter for AC loads The Type Y/3 system for 12 V DC lighting and basic 220 V AC loads in the 1 x 3 class room block comprises: 360 Wp array comprising crystalline solar PV modules V lead calcium maintenance-free solar battery 30 A charge 12 V 11 W and 18 W DC compact fluorescent lamps with shades as required 100 VA modified sine wave inverter for AC loads Bill of quantities and estimated cost The bill of quantities is based on sizing of the PV system based on the average electricity demand. 111

118 System type: Y/2: DC+AC system for 1x2 class room block or a staff house Item unit price Num. Total USD USD PV modules 75 Wp module Wp module PV array mounting structure galvanised mild steel - one module 35 0 galvanised mild steel - four modules Array interconnects n/a Array junction box IP Batteries V maintenance free V tubular plate, flooded V tubular plate, flooded V tubular plate, flooded Battery interconnects n/a 5 0 Battery box small large Battery fuse 30 A Battery fuseholder Charge controller 6 A A A A Inverter 150 VA VA VA VA Wiring 2.5 mm^ mm^ mm^ mm^ mm^ Lights 11 Watt / 600 lumen CFL Watt / 1000 lumen CFL Switchgear n/a Conduit 20 mm upvc Saddles 0 Warning signs User manual O&M manual Spares assorted per 10 Type X systems assorted per 10 Type Y systems Sub-total for materials 3257 Transport per 10 systems Installation per 10 small Type X systems per 10 large Type X systems per 10 Type Y systems Training per 10 systems Sub-total for installation 450 TOTAL

119 System type: Y/3: DC+AC system for 1x3 class room block Item unit price Num. Total USD USD PV modules 75 Wp module Wp module PV array mounting structure galvanised mild steel - one module 35 0 galvanised mild steel - four modules Array interconnects n/a Array junction box IP Batteries V maintenance free V tubular plate, flooded V tubular plate, flooded V tubular plate, flooded Battery interconnects n/a Battery box small 15 0 large Battery fuse 30 A Battery fuseholder Charge controller 6 A A A A Inverter 150 VA VA VA VA Wiring 2.5 mm^ mm^ mm^ mm^ mm^ Lights 11 Watt / 600 lumen CFL Watt / 1000 lumen CFL Switchgear n/a Conduit 20 mm upvc Saddles 0 Warning signs User manual O&M manual Spares assorted per 10 Type X systems assorted per 10 Type Y systems Sub-total for materials 4696 Transport per 10 systems Installation per 10 small Type X systems per 10 large Type X systems per 10 Type Y systems Training per 10 systems Sub-total for installation 450 TOTAL

120 Table 8.3 Summary of service requirements and costs Load description Q ty AC /DC Unit load Ave. Load Costs (USD) a BASIC Materials b Transport and SCHOOL Watts Wh/day Ah/day installation c Training Subtotal Lighting 1x2 Class Class room 1 6 DC ,6 20,3 room block Class room 2 6 DC ,6 20,3 Office 2 DC ,3 9,0 Plug points Various office 1 AC Subtotal x3 Class room block Plug points Class room 1 6 DC ,6 20,3 Class room 2 6 DC ,6 20,3 Class room 3 6 DC ,6 20,3 Office 2 DC ,3 9,0 Various office 1 AC Subtotal Bedroom 1 1 DC 18 56,8 4,7 Bedroom 2 1 DC 18 56,8 4,7 Bedroom 3 1 DC 18 56,8 4,7 Staff house Kitchen 2 DC ,6 12,6 1-5 Dining / ,6 12,6 living room 2 DC Passage 1 DC 11 11,6 1,0 Outside area 1 DC 11 8,3 0,7 Plug points TV Living room 1 AC

121 Music system Living room 1 AC Subtotal TOTAL excluding staff house TOTAL with one staff house TOTAL with five staff houses a: These figures are indicative and will need to be refined during detailed programme design and implementation. b: Including PV system, lights, wiring, battery, user manuals, O&M manuals and spares c: Estimates for installation and training are based on a contractor having a certain minimum number of installations in a region - one off installations would probably be more expensive. 115

122 8.3 Specifications for maintenance Overview When compared with other small-scale off-grid electricity supply systems, solar PV systems require little maintenance. However, little maintenance does not mean no maintenance. Experience with PV programs across the world has shown that regular and good quality maintenance is the most critical requirement for success of these initiatives. The overall expected outcome of the maintenance program is to ensure ongoing long term delivery of electricity services from the solar PV systems at health and education facilities. The proposed mechanism to ensure this is to equip commercial entities, who operate at the district level, with the skills and resources to establish service agreements with the District Health and Education administrators with customers and undertake routine and breakdown maintenance for all PV systems in their area of operation Rationale The underlying principal for the maintenance of solar PV systems is the commercial return sustainable income derived from customer services provided to a critical mass of customers within as small a geographical area as possible and comprising a diverse customer mix to ensure the lowest fixed overheads (primarily for transport) and a sufficient volume of work for a viable business. The advantage of a planned (also called routine or preventative) maintenance regime is that the high costs of transport can be utilized most effectively by designing maintenance routes, which can be planned in advance. Furthermore, good routine maintenance minimizes the requirement for expensive breakdown maintenance Overall maintenance regime The levels of maintenance are expected to vary over the effective operating lifetimes of the solar PV systems. Regular routine visits are essential in the early stages; say eighteen months, of the program to ensure high levels of customer satisfaction both technically and in terms of peace of mind. After this initial shake out period, during which all the teething troubles can be sorted out, the routine maintenance can settle down into a less-frequent interval. The next expected phase of maintenance is the period when batteries start needing to be replaced. This is expected to occur over a period between 5 8 years after installation. These routine and replacement maintenance activities should be undertaken by the local maintenance contractor using spares which are ordered from the main PV suppliers as required and kept at a district level. 116

123 In addition, maintenance capacity is required throughout the program for breakdown maintenance in the event of failure of system components or damage or theft. This support is most important for the critical systems, which provide energy for communications and the cold chain. This level of maintenance capacity may be undertaken by the local maintenance contractor or may require specialist support from Lusaka or Ndola Maintenance tasks The following outline of a routine maintenance regime is suggested: Confirm maintenance visit with responsible staff member approximately 10 days in advance. Check level of spares in stock and order replacements as required Meet the responsible staff member on site. Check status of the system with him / her. Perform visual inspection starting with appliances and working back towards the array. Perform measurements of system status and performance do not disconnect any wires or components, i.e. these measurements must be noninvasive to avoid creating new problems. Record status and measurements on the maintenance log sheet Obtain signature of the staff member on log sheet Place one copy of the completed log sheet in the O&M manual Give another copy of the log sheet to the staff member to submit to the maintenance administrator for release of money to the maintenance contractor In the event of a breakdown, the maintenance tasks will be focused on the specific problem as identified by a fault diagnosis procedure. The maintenance contractor must again complete a maintenance log sheet and submit the signed copy to the staff at the facility for forwarding on to the District maintenance administrator Maintenance log sheet A pair of suggested templates for maintenance log sheets are presented below for routine maintenance and breakdown maintenance. 51 Two copies of this log sheet must be completed for each system (Type X or Type Y) at the time of each routine maintenance visit. 51 This type of system has already been established by Mr. Din and is in place for cold-chain equipment 117

124 Figure 8.1 Routine Maintenance Logsheet Site details Site name: Date: Starting time: Name of technician: Weather conditions: Name of staff member: Finishing time: Type of system Type X Type Y Other Visual inspection Is the operation and maintenance manual available? (Y / N) Is the safety available? (Y / N) Are there any complaints / comments from the staff at the site? (Y / N) If so, write these down Are there any indications of damage or abuse? (Y / N) If so, write down the details What is the condition of the array dusty or clean; any shading between 09:00 17:00 from vegetation or other causes? What is the status indication on the charge controller? Are all the appliances operating? (Y / N) If not, write down the details Routine measurements Array and battery Array generation current A Electrolyte levels Battery voltage under charge Battery voltage under C20 discharge V Specific gravity Cell No SG V 1 4 C20 discharge current A 2 5 Charge controller Status? Appliances Vaccine refrigerator temperature o C Inverter Status? Refrigerator current consumption Water pump flow rate litres/min Water pump current consumption Maintenance tasks Clean PV array Top up battery electrolyte with distilled water 3 6 Cell No SG A A 118

125 Check all array wiring connections Check all battery connections Check status of all isolating switches and set correctly Signatures Signature of responsible staff member Date Signature of maintenance contractor Date 119

126 Figure 8.2 Breakdown maintenance log sheet Site details Site name: Date: Starting time: Name of technician: Weather conditions: Name of staff member: Finishing time: Type of system Type X Type Y Other Description of problem(s) What problems are reported by the customers / users? Description of repair(s) Describe all the repairs which have been made Replacement equipment Describe all the equipment which has been replaced (including serial numbers) Maintenance tasks Clean PV array Top up battery electrolyte with distilled water Check all array wiring connections Check all battery connections Check status of all isolating switches and set correctly Signatures Signature of responsible staff member: Date: Signature of maintenance contractor: Date: Tools and equipment Each maintenance contractor must be equipped with transport, tools and basic equipment to undertake the maintenance. These could be hired as required, but it makes more sense for the contractors to buy, hire or lease these on a long-term basis. 120

127 9 Annex D: Fieldwork and fieldwork sites The team, comprising of Therése Hindman Persson, Glynn Morris, Harald Wium Lie, Tsibu Bbuku (CBoH), Raphael Mwanza (MoH), Charles Ndakala (MoE), and Bupe Musonda (MoH), undertook fieldwork in the Eastern Province of Zambia between 19 and 26 May The fieldwork began and concluded with consultative meetings with EML (Electrical Maintenance Lusaka Ltd.), Suntech solar, the MPU, the ERB, ZAMSIF, MoE, DoE, MoH, CBoH, Sida, Mr. Akthar Din (EPI National Cold Chain and Logistics Officer), Professor Francis Yamba (Director of the Centre for Energy Environment and Engineering (Z) Ltd.), Dr. Lemba Nyirenda in Lusaka. In the eastern Province, the base location for the fieldwork was Chipata. The World Bank team chose this location during their mission to Zambia in March/April The team is aware of the limitations the chosen fieldwork location implies for generalizations. Nevertheless, it has become apparent that differences between provinces have more to do with reliability of service solutions, security of supply and access to credit markets than the technical solutions per se, which somewhat decreases the potential adverse effects of limited fieldwork. However, in order to get a broader and more varied picture a fieldtrip to the Western Province, i.e. the least developed province would be useful. This province is practically unreachable six months of the year, which creates different demands for e.g. radio communication and security of power supply for vaccine refrigeration. During the fieldwork a selection of health facilities and schools were visited. The selection was based on the objectives set out for the overall program and hence included health posts, rural health centres, zonal health centres, hospitals, mission hospitals, district health offices, basic schools, secondary schools, boarding schools, teacher training colleges, teacher resource centres, district education offices. In addition, the Chipata ESCO (CHESCO) office and the Chipata Zamtel office were visited. The facilities visited were: Nyimba district hospital St Francis Mission Hospital 121

128 Mwasemphangwe zonal rural health centre Mwasemphangwe schemes rural health centre Mkanda rural health centre Nsadzu rural health centre Vulamkoko zonal rural health centre Katondo rural health post Mwasemphangwe basic school Mwala basic school Nyimba secondary school Chizongwe secondary technical school Chipata teacher training college and teacher resource centre Muthanjala Chinjala Women's Multi-purpose Co-operative Society (Women with a Vision) In addition, provincial and district health and education offices were visited before any other facilities could be visited. For all facilities there have been an assessment of the situation regarding staff houses as well and some staff solar home systems have been reviewed. During the fieldwork period there were two days during which no schools could be visited - Sunday 23 may and Tuesday 25 May, which is the African freedom day and a public holiday. The locations of the various facilities together with information of the main electricity grid as well as planned and existing GSM coverage are presented in Figure

129 Figure 9.1 Location of facilities visited during the fieldwork Mwasmphangwe basic school & health centre Mfuwe Mambwe Chinjala cooperative Katondo rural health centre Chizongwe secondary Mkanda rural health centre St.Francis mission hospital Vulamkoko rural health centre Mwala basic Nsadzu rural health centre Visited school or clinic Nyimba hospital & secondary school Current GSM coverage Planned GSM coverage 0 km Grid electricity 100 km 9.1 Nyimba district hospital Figure 9.2 Nyimba district hospital As can be seen from Figure 9.1, there is no grid electricity available yet at Nyimba hospital. In this case the poles are there but not the grid. The distance to the ZESCO grid is currently 68 kilometres. However, the hospital has a generator that is operated four hours a day between and hours. The size of the 123

130 generator is 60kVA, 48kW. The generator is serviced every four months by the operator but there is no specific maintenance contract. Spare parts are bought by the hospital. The district catchment population is 101,100 and the hospital s catchment population is 15,058. There are 17 staff, 71 beds and the number of referring health centres are 12. The vaccine fridges at the hospital are two SIBIR V240 KE kerosene upright fridges and one Electrolux RCW EK chest fridge. For cooking, water heating and sterilization firewood is used. The hospital has one phone line and one computer but no internet connection. If the computer breaks down it has to be brought to Lusaka for repairs. 9.2 St Francis Mission Hospital Figure 9.3 St Francis mission hospital From Figure 9.1, it can be seen that grid electricity is available to the hospital, which is situated 84 kilometres from Chipata. However, there are outages in the rainy season and power fluctuations cause huge problems for appliances and specialist equipment. The hospital has a backup generator; 150 kva, and they also have solar water heating systems. The district catchment population is 800,000 and it is the biggest mission hospital in Zambia. There are 250 staff, 120 civil servants and 340 beds. There are six phone lines but there are problems with vandalism. The metal phone poles between St Francis and Katete are stolen and used for making hoes. Currently, there are 8-10 computers scattered around the hospital but only one computer with internet access. A trial system for telemedicine is underway (digital camera and to SWINFEN Trust). There is currently no mobile phone coverage but it is coming. 9.3 Mwasemphangwe zonal rural health centre Figure 9.4 Mwasemphangwe zonal health centre As is evident from Figure 9.1, there is no grid electricity available at the Mwasemphangwe zonal rural health centre. The distance to the ZESCO grid is 96 kilometres and none of the buildings are wired for AC. There are 5 staff and 5 staff houses. PV systems have been installed by the district health office in Lundazi and radio systems by the Zambia Flying Doctor Service. There is no solar 124

131 system for lighting but kerosene lamps and candles are used instead. However, there are solar systems for vaccine refrigeration, for radio communication, and for use of a microscope. The solar systems for refrigeration and for the microscope are in good condition but the battery connections are in poor condition for the radio system see Figure 9.5. The health centre has a 10 m HF mast for the radio, which is of the type CODAN X-2 SSB Transceiver, HF radio on Channel 1 (5430KHz). Figure 9.5 Radio at Mwasemphangwe zonal health centre 9.4 Mwasemphangwe schemes rural health centre There is no grid electricity available at the Mwasemphangwe schemes rural health centre see Figure 9.1. The distance to the ZESCO grid is 86 kilometres and none of the buildings are wired for AC. PV systems have been installed by the district health office in Lundazi and radio systems by the Zambia Flying Doctor Service. The solar system for lighting has not worked for 12 months due to batteries and light fittings. Kerosene lamps and candles are used instead. However, there are solar systems for vaccine refrigeration (supplied by the MPU in 1996) and for radio communication. The health centre has a 10 m HF mast for the radio, which is of the type CODAN NGT SR Type 2010 (newish), HF radio on Channel 1 (5430KHz). 125

132 Figure 9.6 Mwasemphangwe schemes rural health centre 9.5 Mkanda rural health centre As can be seen from Figure 9.1, there is no grid electricity available at the Mkanda rural health centre, which has five staff houses. Solar PV systems have been installed for lighting, radio communication, refrigeration and water pumping by the district health office. However, the solar panels for water pumping were stolen three years ago but have not been replaced the problems have been reported to the district health office. The lack of a water pump has made the solar water heater obsolete. For the staff houses, kerosene lamps and candles are used for lighting. However, there are solar systems for vaccine refrigeration (supplied by the MPU in 1996) and for radio communication. The health centre has a 10 m HF mast for the radio, which is of the type Kachina Model KC102, HF transceiver (sometimes not working). Figure 9.7 Mkanda rural health centre 126

133 9.6 Nsadzu rural health centre Nsadzu rural health centre, which has five staff houses (one is vacant) has no grid electricity see Figure 9.1. The distance to the ZESCO grid is 1.5 kilometres. In the buildings, there are conduits installed but no AC wiring. The cost for wiring is estimated at 13 million kwacha. Three solar PV systems have been installed for lighting, one for radio communication, one for refrigeration and one for water pumping and one for water heating. In addition, the health centre has a portable solar light. The lighting systems were supplied and installed by Behrens although they supplied the wrong batteries. Complaints were raised with the Ministry but nothing happened. The water pump has seized to function, which has made the solar water heater obsolete. For the staff houses, kerosene lamps and candles are used for lighting. The health centre has a 10 m HF mast for the radio, which is of the type CODAN RF Unit NGT SR Type 2010, used 5-10 day, ambulance called 4-5 times/week. Figure 9.8 Nsadzu rural health centre 9.7 Vulamkoko zonal rural health centre As can be seen from Figure 9.1, there is no grid electricity available at the Vulamkoko rural health centre, which has five staff and three staff houses (one is semi-detached). The distance to the ZESCO grid is two kilometres. There is no AC wiring but conduits are installed. The catchment population is 30,205. Solar PV systems have been installed for lighting, for radio communication (supplied by ZFDS), and for water pumping and heating. The lighting system was supplied and installed by Behrens. They have had problem with the batteries and the district health office has advised them to buy new batteries in Lusaka (approximate cost 750,000 kwacha). Three of the solar panels for the water pump were stolen but two could be retrieved due to identification of serial numbers. The district health office replaced the other panel. To prevent theft a new construction was built for the panels (Figure 9.9). For the staff houses, kerosene lamps and candles are used for lighting. The health centre has a 10 m HF mast for the radio, which is of the type Kachina Model KC102, HF transceiver, used by community for funerals etc. 127

134 Figure 9.9 Vulamkoko borehole 9.8 Katondo rural health post From Figure 9.1, it can be seen that there is no grid electricity available at the Katondo health post. The distance to the ZESCO grid is 12 kilometres and none of the buildings are wired for AC. There are 2 staff and 1 staff house, and the catchment population is 6,543. PV systems for lighting in the clinic and staff house have been installed by Next Tech in Lusaka and the radio system by the Zambia Flying Doctor Service. The health centre has a 10 m HF mast for the radio, which is of the type Kenwood TK 80. In addition, there is mobile phone coverage in the area. Figure 9.10 Sub-optimal placing of panels at Katondo health post 9.9 Mwasemphangwe basic school The Mwasemphangwe basic school is situated 96 kilometres from the ZESCO grid and from the district office. It is boarding school with more than 480 pupils but only five teachers. Out of the 480+ pupils there are 45 boarders (25 boys and 20 girls). All the girls sleep on the floor in one room and all the boys sleep on the floor in another room. Both of these rooms are used for other purposes during the day. There are three classrooms and five staff houses. Paraffin lamps and candles are used for lighting and firewood is used for cooking and water heating. There is a radio at the nearby health centre but the school is not always allowed to use it only for emergencies. 128

135 Figure 9.11 Not enough classrooms at Mwasemphangwe basic school 9.10 Mwala basic school The Mwala basic school is a day school located 14 kilometres from the district office in Chadiza. There are 506 pupils enrolled 2004 (256 girls, and 250 boys). Due to the large number of poor families the World Food programme is active with a school-feeding programme. According to the teachers, a positive effect on the children s learning and concentration abilities has been noticed since the start of the programme. The school has three permanent classrooms and two temporary (grass structures), and there are three staff houses. They communicate with the district office and other authorities through writing letters that are deliver by bicycle. Figure 9.12 Mwala basic school and structure for feeding programme 9.11 Nyimba secondary school The Nyimba secondary school is situated 68 kilometres from the ZESCO grid. There are 35 teachers and 800 pupils. Out of the 800, pupils 550 are boarding. They have solar panels but they are only used for battery charging. In addition they have a diesel generator at the school that is running from to each day. There are also diesel generators for the staff houses. However, the diesel generator at the school does not provide them with enough power to use the 10 computer that were donated to them by the NGO Computers for Zambia s secondary schools. The school has one phone line and satellite TV (DSTV) from South Africa. Besides being a school the facilities are used for church groupings and weddings. 129

136 9.12 Chizongwe secondary technical school The Chizongwe secondary school is located just six kilometres from the district office in Chipata and the ZESCO grid is all around but not all parts of the school are connected. There are 36 teachers at the school but currently some of them are on study leave. The number of pupils is 750 and of them are boarding. The school has 10 computers donated but the NGO Computers for Zambia s secondary schools but they have not been installed yet. They paid ZESCO K 5.9 million a year ago to extend the grid but nothing has happened yet. The ZESCO reply is that they are waiting for poles. Currently there is no internet connection at the school but there is a phone line Chipata teacher training college and teacher resource centre Both the teacher training college (570 students and 39 teachers) and the teacher resource centre are connected to the main electricity grid. However, whereas the teacher training college reports problems with power interruptions during the rainy season the teacher resource centre does not seem to experience similar problems. The college is connected to the internet but due to limited capacity they do not use the facilities fully. The MoE reported that they are willing and able to help out with training of the staff so that the computers can be used more efficiently. ICT is also considered important to access learning materials, as library books are scarce. People come from Lusaka to maintain the computers but there was no service contract when the computers were supplied. At the teacher resource centre funds are raised for maintenance from the members of the centre and from people who hire the facilities. All maintenance is carried out locally. Figure 9.13 Teacher training college in Chipata 9.14 Muthanjala Chinjala Women's Multipurpose Co-operative Society (Women with a Vision) As the name indicates, this is a women s co-operative situated 18 kilometres from the district office. The co-operative was initiated when deteriorating economic conditions threatened all the surrounding villages. They have set up a mill and people come to grind maize for a fee. In addition, there is a small workshop in 130

137 which they produce and sell e.g. maize flour, sunflower oil, wine, jam, soymilk, and other soy products. In order to set up the facility and to get a connection to the ZESCO grid, loans of 124 million kwacha have been taken. However, the cooperative has already paid back 87 million kwacha. The women who are members (the membership fee is 50,000 kwacha) of the co-operative have worked in the formal sector before but are now retired. In other word, they are highly competent and ambitious. In addition, the women applied for a health post in 2001 since the nearest health centre is seven kilometres away but nothing has happened yet except for the fact that the women have already constructed the bricks for the foundation. Four of the women have solar home system under the CHESCO initiative and they are pleased with the arrangement. 100 people pass through the mill each day covering a radius of at least 20 kilometres. The mill is a gathering point for the surrounding communities (more than people) and people from far away spend the night at the mill. They would greatly benefit from having a phone booth with lighting and a billboard for sharing information. This is a location where investments are likely to have a profound impact on the surrounding communities and where the incentive structure are already such that it is likely that the resources will be well managed. 131