THE A NONTECHNICAL GUIDE
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1 THE A NONTECHNICAL GUIDE
2 Contents Preface xv 1 Origins of Oil and Gas 1 A Brief Overview 1 Subsea Burial 2 Hydrocarbon Generation within Source Rock 3 Migration to Reservoir Rock 5 Hydrocarbon Traps 6 Structural traps 6 Stratigraphic traps 8 Combination traps 8 2 Oil Overview,: 9 =J.r ' " - General Composition of Crude Oil' 9 Conventional Crude Oil.* 10 Classification scheme 10 Benchmark crudes 10 Crude oil prices 12 Unconventional Crude Oil 13 Tar sands/oil sands 13 Shale oil! 13 Resources and Reserves 14 Recent Trends in U.S. Oil Production 19 Products Created from Oil 22 Recent Trends in Oil Consumption 23 Projected Trends in Oil Consumption 25 References 27
3 , The Oil & Gas Industry: A Nontechnical Guide 3 Natural Gas Overview 29 Formation and Composition of Natural Gas 29 Conventional Natural Gas 31 Unconventional Natural Gas 32 Deep gas 33 Tight gas 33 Shale gas 33 Coal-bed methane 34 Geopressurized gas 34 Methane hydrate '.".". 35 Resources and Reserves 36 Recent Trends in Gas Production 41 Projected Trends in Gas Production 42 Recent and Projected Trends in Gas Consumption 44 References 46 4 Searching for and Evaluating Oil and Gas 49 Obtaining Rights to Explore for and Produce Oil and Gas Production-sharing agreement 50 Service contract 50 Production contract 51 Exploration Activities 51 Geologic methods,.- ' 52 Geochemical methods 52 Geophysical methods 52 Sqrvey Methods 52 Gravimetric survey 52 Magnetic survey 52 Seismic survey..., 53 Exploratory Drilling 57 Evaluation Methods and Tools 59 Well logging 59 Real-time methods 63 Other evaluation methods 63 Making the Decision to Begin Production 64 Development economics 64 Technical and operational factors 65 References 66
4 Contents 5 Drilling and Completion: Onshore 67 Site Preparation and Well Construction 67 Rotary Drilling 70 Prime mover 71 Hoisting equipment 71 Rotating equipment 72 Drill bit 75 Circulating system 78 Blowout prevention 79 Drilling techniques.-.-." 81 Drilling problems 86 WeUTesting., 87 Onshore Well Completion, 88 Casing 89 Bottom-hole treatment 90 Tubing 91 WeUhead and related equipment 92 WeUTreatment 93 Acidizing 93 Hydraulic fracturing 93 References 98 6 Drilling and Completion: Offshore, 99 Exploratory Drilling '%./.'. 99 Drilling barge 100 Mobile offshore drilling unit 100 ' WeU Completion 103 Fixed Development and Production Platforms 105 Steel-jacket platform 105 Gravity-based platform 107 Tension-leg platform 108 Compliant-tower platform 109 Floating Development and Production Platforms 110 Semisubmersible vessel 110 MonohuU platform (FPSO) Ill Spar platform 112
5 The Oil & Gas Industry: A Nontechnical Guide 7 Managing Oil and Gas Production 115 Start of Production 115 Artificial Lift 116 Workover of aweu 117 Workover actions 118 Sidetrack well : 118 Recompletion 118 Workover of offshore weus 119 Improved Oil Recovery 119 Waterflood '.'.". 120 Gas injection 121 Chemical flood... '? 121 Thermal recovery, 121 Gas Production Management an Overview 123 Initial Gas Treatment 124 Gas Processing Operations 125 Removal of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide 126 Removal of water vapor 126 Removal of heavier hydrocarbon gases 126 Nitrogen removal 127 Helium removal 127 Other Environmental Issues in Gas Production 127 When Production Ends... f Transporting Oil * 131 Preliminary Crude Processing 132 Pipeline Networks 133 Overview 133 Pipe 135 Other components; 139 Inspection and maintenance 140 Offshore Pipelines 144 From weuhead to platform 144 From platform to shore 146 Oil Tanker Ships 149 Railcars and Tank Trucks 151 Oil Storage 152 SPRs 154 References 155
6 Contents 9 Transporting Natural Gas by Pipeline 157 Overview of Gas Transportation 157 Transmission Systems 160 U.S. gas transmission 160 Basic pipeline equipment 163 Gas storage 168 Inspection and maintenance 170 Global gas transmission 171 Distribution Systems 173 City gate station.". 173 Piping network 173 Piping materials* 175 Minimizing gas leakage 176 ControUing corrosion 177 Peak-shaving Transporting Natural Gas as LNG 179 Background 179 The Liquefaction Process 182 LNG Storage Tanks 183 Offshore Liquefaction Concepts 185 LNG Tanker Ships 187 Onshore Regasification Process,...',.\ 190 Offshore Regasification Process". 192 LNG Safety * Converting Oil into Products 195 Overview of Refining 195 Separation/Distillation 197 Conversion.... i ( 202 Cracking 202 Combination 206 Modification 207 Enhancement 208 Hydroprocessing 209 Amine treating 209 Solvent extraction 209 Sweetening 209
7 x, The Oil & Gas Industry: A Nontechnical Guide Blending/Finishing 210 Gasoline blendstocks 210 Gasoline additives 210 Types of Refineries 211 Classification by complexity 211 Classification by capacity 212 Refinery Maintenance Schedules 212 Product Pipelines 213 Finished petroleum products 213 Petrochemicals and LPGs Standards for Refined Products 217 Petrochemicals Production Converting Natural Gas into Products 221 Direct Gas Use as a Fuel 221 Gas as a Petrochemical Feedstock 222 Ethane 222 Propane and butane 222 Gas-to-Liquids Technology 223 Other Products Derived from Natural Gas Petroleum Industry Structure 225 Major Oil and Gas Producers,,.. r Y\ 225 The Seven Sisters, supermajors, and international oil companies 226 National oil companies 228 Hybrid companies 229 Independent Producers 230 Service Companies 232 IOC-NOC Interactions 233 OPEC ^ 235 OPEC history 236 OPEC membership 236 OPEC outlook 237 Refiners 240 Independent refiners 242 World refining capacity 243 Largest refiners and refineries 245 Refinery projects planned for 2010 and beyond 250 References 251
8 Contents 14 Petroleum Trading 253 Oil Trading 254 Physical versus paper trading 254 Pricing a historical perspective 255 Oil pricing today 256 Pricing along the delivery chain 258 Posted prices 259 Hubs 259 Transportation services 260 Sale and movement of refined products 262 Petroleum product marketers 263 Gasoline distribution and marketing 264 Natural Gas Trading 264 U.S. historical perspective 264 Physical delivery of natural gas 265 Hubs 266 Financial gas market 267 LDC role in gas marketing 267 LNG trading Emerging Challenges for the Petroleum Industry 271 Continued Technology Development 273 Competition from Nonfossil Energy Sources 273 Climate-Change Policy %. J'/'r 274 Industry Structure 275 Industry Operations 275 ' Workforce demographics 275 Role of natural gas 276 Crude oil quality 276 Environmental and safety compliance 276 Security...', ' 277 The Chinese ChaUenge 278 Other International Interactions 278 Peak Oil Production 279 FinalThoughts '. 280 References 280
9 I The Oil & Gas Industry: A Nontechnical Guide Appendix A: Terms, Abbreviations, and Acronyms 281 Appendix B: Further Reading 287 Technical Books and Professional Articles 287 General Interest 289 Other Information Sources 290 Appendix C: Organizations, Agencies, and Professional Societies 291 Trade Associations and Professional Societies-:: 291 U.S. Government Agencies 292 International Energy Organizations 293 Index 295
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