TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION

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2 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 11 Ricardo Perspective 11 Executive summary 13 Key drivers to technology development 13 Legislation and regulation 13 Greenhouse gas/ CO 2 emissions 13 Passenger and pedestrian safety 17 Exhaust emissions 20 Recycling 22 Competing for customers 23 Improving fuel economy 24 Performance and vehicle dynamics 25 Safety and security 25 Vehicle design and style 26 Cost control and increasing shareholder wealth 26 Vehicle design and testing 26 Economies of scale and platforms 27 OEMs and the tier structure 28 Modules and sub-assemblies 28 Technology trends affecting the industry 29 Shortening design and replacement cycles 29 Systems integration 29 The packaging dilemma 30 Electrics, electronics and mechatronics 31 Availability of diagnostic information 31 BODY AND SYSTEMS 33 The body structure 33 Summary and timeline 33 Aerodynamics 34 Body concepts 36 Modules 37 Corner modules 37 Materials 38 Lightweight construction 39 Aluminium, magnesium and hybrid construction 39 Plastics 41 Hybrid materials technology 42 SMC 43 Nanocomposites 44 Recycling 45 Joining technology 47 Adhesives 47 Welding 49 Self-piercing rivets 53 Paints and coatings 55 Rust-proofing 55 Paint layers 55 Types of paint 57 ADVANCED LIGHTING TECHNOLOGY 59 Summary timeline 59 Front lights 59 Intelligent lighting systems 64 Rear lights 65 Interior lighting 67 Instrument panel and switch lighting 67 Ambient lighting 67 Colour 68 Display technology 68 SupplierBusiness Ltd

3 Head-up display 70 Intelligent interior lighting 71 Vehicle fitment to 2018 and future trends 71 Design presentation 72 Validating the headlamp and lighting design 72 Market Penetration 72 SAFETY 74 Summary timeline 74 Passive Safety systems 75 Airbags 75 Seat belts 77 Rear seat belts 78 Active head restraints 79 Occupant detection systems 79 Structural developments 81 Compatibility 82 Seat safety design 83 Pedestrian protection 83 Active safety systems 87 Vehicle control and rollover 87 Electronic Stability Control (ESC) 87 ASR (Anti-Schlupf-Regelung - Traction Control) 89 Electronic Braking System (EBS) or Electronic Brake Distribution (EBD) 89 Active Suspension 90 Active All Wheel Drive (AWD) 91 Collision Mitigation Systems (CMS) 91 Collision Mitigation and Avoidance Systems (CMAS) 92 Lane Departure Warning (LDW) systems 92 Lane Keeping Assistance 92 Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) 92 Accelerator Force Feedback Pedal (AFFP) 94 Torque vectoring 95 Sensor technology 95 The sensitive car 96 Human-machine interface (HMI) 97 Drowsiness Detection Systems 100 Alcohol interlock 100 Reversing Assist/Parking Assist 101 Blind spot monitor 102 Vision Enhancement 102 Passive night vision systems 102 Active night vision systems 102 Advanced vision systems 103 Voice activation 104 Vehicle fitment to 2018 and future trends 104 Consumer demand 104 OEM demand 105 Concerns over litigation 105 Concerns over added value 105 Market Penetration 105 INTERIOR SYSTEMS 108 Climate control systems (HVAC) 108 R744 CO 2 refrigerant gas 108 Modules and packaging 110 Infotainment the Internet in the car 110 Platforms and gateways 111 AUTOSAR 114 Telematics 117 Online services 117 Bandwidths 117 Aerials 118 SupplierBusiness Ltd

4 Vehicle fitment to 2018 and future trends 119 ELECTRONICS 120 Microprocessors 120 Demands of the automotive industry 121 Temperature requirements 122 Vibration and shock 123 Failure rates 124 Challenges for the industry 124 Bandwidth 125 Standardisation 125 Changes in the automotive industry 126 Centralised architecture or decentralised architecture? 126 Automotive bus systems 128 Decentralisation 128 Under-the-hood and body control buses 130 Controller Area Network (CAN) 130 Local Interconnect Network 131 Entertainment and driver information systems 131 Media Oriented System Transport (MOST) 131 Intelligent Transport System Data Bus (IDB) 132 Digital Data Bus (D2B) 133 Bluetooth 133 ZigBee 133 Car2Car 133 Dedicated Short Range Communications (DSRC) 134 Advanced safety systems 135 ByteFlight 135 FlexRay 135 Time-Triggered Protocol (TTP) 136 Time-Triggered CAN (TTCAN) 136 Other bus systems 137 Bus coexistence 138 Technology development 138 Fibre optics 138 Flat cables 139 Flexible printed circuits 139 Programmable logic devices 140 Software 141 AUTOSAR 141 Software potential 144 Standards bodies 144 Distributed functions 145 Security 145 Vehicle fitment to 2018 and future trends 147 Appendix 1: OSI Protocol Description 148 Appendix 2: Encoding Dictionary 149 CHASSIS SYSTEMS 152 Summary timeline 152 Steering 153 Electrically Power Assisted Steering (EPAS) 153 Surface acoustic wave 154 Electro-Hydraulic Power Steering (EHPS) 155 Electric Power Steering (EPS) 155 Steer-by-wire 156 Active Front Steering (AFS) 156 Four-wheel steering 159 Automated parking 160 Suspension 161 Active body control 161 Anti-roll bars 162 Adaptive damping system 162 SupplierBusiness Ltd

5 Air suspension 163 Active suspension 166 Electronic Damper Control (EDC) 166 Active Suspension Geometry (ASG) 166 Semi-active suspension 166 Active electronic suspension system 167 Vehicle fitment to 2018 and future trends 168 Brakes 168 Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS) 168 Electronic Braking System (EBS) or Electronic Brake Distribution (EBD) 168 Brake Assist (BA) 168 Autonomous emergency braking 171 Ceramic composite brakes 171 Brake-by-wire 171 Electro-hydraulic brake-by-wire 171 Electro-mechanical brake-by-wire 173 Regenerative braking systems and brake blending 174 Vehicle stability systems 175 Wheels and tires 176 Tire Pressure Monitoring System (TPMS) 176 Vehicle fitment to 2018 and future trends 177 Four-wheel drive (4WD) 177 Emissions and Fuel Economy 178 Active Torque Dynamics (ATD) 178 Safety and AWD 179 Technologies and Challenges 180 Electric AWD 181 Integration of Control Systems 181 Active All Wheel Drive (AWD) 181 Torque vectoring 182 The future for chassis design 182 Vehicle fitment to 2018 and future trends 183 POWERTRAIN 184 Industry Drivers 185 Summary and outlook 187 gasoline Engine Technology 192 Fuel efficiency 192 Engine technology development 193 Engine downsizing 194 The 2/4SIGHT engine 195 Torque enhancement system (VTES) 197 Variable compression rations 198 Valve technology 198 Variable valve technology 198 Electro-mechanical valve control 201 Cylinder shutoff Variable Displacement Engine (VDE) or Displacement on Demand 202 Combustion systems 204 Gasoline Direct Injection 204 Spray guided injection 206 Alternative engine technologies 207 The MUSIC engine 207 The Duke Engine 208 The Pivotal Engine 208 Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) 209 The Daimler DiesOtto concept 211 Diesel Engine Technology 212 Weight reduction and new materials 214 Commonrail 214 Bosch s third generation commonrail system 215 Commonrail for commercial vehicles 215 Piezo technology 217 SupplierBusiness Ltd

6 Pistons 220 Compacted Graphite Iron (CGI) 220 Diesels in the US 222 The economic benefits of engine families 225 Summary and outlook 225 Turbocharging 226 Turbocharger Sectors 226 Superchargers 227 Turbocharging Versus Supercharging 227 Wastegated turbochargers 229 Turbocompounding 229 Charged Air Coolers (CACs) 230 Compressors 230 Compressor mapping 231 Twin-Scroll Turbochargers 232 Bearing Systems 232 Micro turbocharging 233 Variable geometry 233 Multiple Turbochargers 235 Electronic controls and new materials 238 Titanium Compressor Impellers 239 Assisted turbocharging 240 Exhaust aftertreatment 241 Gasoline (Petrol) Engine Emissions 242 Diesel Engine Emissions 243 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) 244 Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) 245 System design 248 Alternative fuels 248 Biofuels 248 Ethanol 251 Biodiesel 252 Biofuels compatibility with today s engines 253 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) 254 Hydrogen enriched compressed natural gas (HCNG) 257 The hydrogen internal combustion engine 258 Hybrids 259 Powertrain 261 Batteries and power storage 262 OEM overview 263 Summary 267 Vehicle fitment to 2018 and future trends 267 Fuel cell vehicles 267 The different methods 274 Liquefied hydrogen 275 Compressed hydrogen 275 Methanol 275 Gasoline reformation 275 Metal hydrides 275 Nanotubes 276 Sodium borohydride 276 Cost factors 276 Fuel cell advantages 277 Future trends 277 ELECTRIC VEHICLE TECHNOLOGY 279 EV Componentry 280 Electrical motors 282 AC Motors 282 DC Motors 282 Synchronous motors 283 Switch reluctance machines 284 SupplierBusiness Ltd

7 Battery Technology 285 Lead acid 286 Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) 287 Sodium nickel chloride (NaNiCl) 288 Lithium-ion 289 Li-ion technology improvements 291 Supercapacitors and ultracapacitors 292 Flywheel Energy Storage 293 Energy Infrastructure 294 TRANSMISSIONS 296 Summary timeline 296 Consumer preferences - launch, gearshift quality and vehicle performance 299 Transmission costs, investment and installed capacity 299 Packaging, safety and weight 300 Transmissions technology 301 Manual Transmissions (MTs) 302 Automated manual transmissions (AMTs) 303 Dual clutch automated manual transmissions (DCT) 304 Market considerations 306 Automatic transmissions speed automatic transmissions speed transmissions speed transmissions 310 Continuously variable transmissions (CVT) 311 Market considerations 314 Other transmission technologies 315 The infinitely variable transmission (IVT) or toroidal transmission 315 Antonov Automatic Driver (AAD) 316 Zeroshift 318 Hybrid transmissions 319 One-Mode and Two-Mode Hybrids 320 Clutch development 322 Clutch-by-wire 322 Summary 323 Vehicle fitment to 2018 and future trends 323 SupplierBusiness Ltd

8 TABLE OF FIGURES 1: Change in CO 2 emissions (all sources) for OECD countries, 2002 relative to : Passenger car fuel economy/ CO 2 reduction progress ACEA/ JAMA/ KAMA : The relationship between fuel consumption and CO2 targets : Top Runner fuel economy standards (Km/l) : Relative cost versus fuel saving for different technology bases : The effect of safety technology measures in Germany to : Combustion components in exhaust gases : The link between engine development and emissions regulation : European and US reductions in emissions : Progressive NOx and HC emissions limits in Europe, Japan and the US : Varying consumer perceptions by car type : ACEA (European) car parc characteristics to : The compromise between body acceleration and wheel loading : Engineering design parameters for various car segments : VW's PQ35 platform as used in the Golf : The growth of integrated functions : The relationship between functions and control units to : Increasing electrical power requirements : HGV brake diagnostics : The automotive profit pool : Timeline for the body structure and related technology elements : A vehicle at design stage undergoing wind tunnel testing : Delphi's quiet corner module : Faurecia's Audi A6 front-end module : Laser welded door containing three different steels : Friction stir welding : Laser assisted friction stir welding : Self-piercing rivet process : Electrostatically applied 'nano-particle' clearcoat : Automotive lighting timeline : Mercedes-Benz/Hella - active light system (1) : Mercedes-Benz/Hella - active light system (2) : Hella's swivelling light module : Hella's LED headlamp assembly : LED light cluster as used in the Lexus LS600h : Visteon's LED rear light cluster : Hella's variable intensity LED rear light cluster : Light piping through plastic moulded pipes : Visteon's thin-film technology in Jaguar's XK instrument cluster : GM's head-up display : Vehicle safety systems timeline : Autoliv's adaptive front airbags : Autoliv's inflatable curtain : Autoliv's inflatable tube airbag : Delphi's passive occupant detection system : Autoliv's pedestrian protection system : Increasing vehicle dynamics system integration : Hella's advanced lane recognition system : Continental's AFFP gives warning of hazardous situations by vibrating and exerting counter pressure in the pedal : Continental's rapid reaction accelerator pedal : External sensor ranges : Hella's active night vision system : Estimated number of microprocessors in a vehicle SupplierBusiness Ltd

9 54: Requirements on electronic devices : Typical temperatures in which automotive electronic components must function : Temperature and shock operating conditions for automotive electronic components : Failure rate requirements of automotive electronic components : The development of processor clock frequencies : Domain related interconnected architecture : Use of CAN and LIN buses in a modern car : Trends in in-vehicle network architecture, : Telematics roadmap : X-by-wire roadmap : Chassis technology timeline : Components of an active system : Active steering system components : Variable ratio steering : Renault s active four wheel steer systems as fitted to the Laguna GT : Continental's air suspension system : Bose's fully electromechanical front suspension model : Continental s electro-hydraulic combi braking system layout : Continental s electronic wedge brake on test : Continental s regenerative braking system layout : TRW s second generation slip control boost brake technology : Bosch's yaw torque compensation system : Attributes of lifestyle and AWD wagons and performance AWD vehicles : Attributes of SUVs and crossover vehicles : Urban road transport NOx emissions : Permitted emissions for cars by class : Specific emissions targets : Comparison of EU light vehicles against new proposed EU CO 2 limits : Current car manufacturers status against EU target : Technology roadmaps for gasoline engines focused on CO 2 reduction : Cost/ benefit of future powertrain choices : 2/4SIGHT prototype engine : 2/4SIGHT engine concept : VCR engine efficiency at various power levels : Nissan s VVEL system : A cam-less engine using electro-mechanical valve control on test at Lotus : Valeo s e-valve system : A comparison of wall guided and spray guided direct injection : Cylinder head design layout for a four cylinder engine : A 3 litre equivalent Duke Engine : Water-cooled pivotal piston engine : The effect of diesel engine downsizing on fuel consumption : Continental s piezo injector : Delphi s HP HD Diesel Common rail System : A comparison of direct acting injectors versus servo-hydraulic injector spray patterns : US diesel and gasoline prices in comparison with the WTI crude index : Supercharged Audi 3.0L V6 Engine : Scania 12 litre Euro IV engine with EGR and turbocompounding : Compressor map of a turbocharger for passenger car applications : Holset VGT Turbocharging Technology : Tri-turbo concept from Mercedes Benz : BMW bi-turbo : Turbocharging technologies for high pressure charging : A comparison between 1975 and 2009 passenger car exhaust system : A Three-way catalytic converter : Heated TWC SupplierBusiness Ltd

10 110: NOx /particulates trade-off in cooled and non-cooled EGR systems : A schematic illustrating SCR : Diesel Particulate Filter : Diesel exhaust aftertreatment system schematic : World biofuel targets : First and second generation biofuels : Pros and cons of first and second generation biofuels : Well-to-wheel analysis for biofuels : OEM manufactured CNG/ LPG engine options are limited : CNG filling stations in Europe : Bi-fuel system components : A SunLine Tranist Agency "SunBus" with Cummins Westport 5.9-litre B Gas Plus engine, refuelling with HCNG : Toyota's Prius : Operation of the Toyota Prius under different driving circumstances : Comparison of fuel cell technologies : Mercedes-Benz B Class Fuel Cell research vehicle : Ballard's fuel cell stack : Ford fuel cell components : Ford's Focus fuel cell vehicle : Current projects and prototypes : Typical EV component layouts : A system layout with isolated high and low voltage circuits : A system layout with isolated high and low voltage circuits : EV motors : Switch reluctance machines : Energy storage overview : Battery technology evolution : A typical Zebra battery module : Lithium- ion battery pack : Energy density versus Output density in battery systems : A Ragone plot showing energy density vs power density for various energy-storage devices : NASA s G2 Flywheel : Transmission trends timeline : Advanced transmission potential contribution to overall CO 2 reduction : Segment average kerb weight : Transmission types: strengths and weaknesses : Increasing penetration of 6 speed MTs Europe : Manual transmission volumes Europe : VW 7 speed dual clutch DCT -DQ : Schematic of a DCT : LuK s dual dry clutch as used in the DQ200 VW 7-speed DCT : Getrag's DCT range to be launched : ZF s 7-speed high torque DCT : A Ravigneaux gear set : A simple epicyclic planetary gear set : ZF s 6HP 6-speed AT (front) compared with a previous 5-speed AT : Mercedes-Benz 7G-Tronic automatic transmission : ZF s 8HP 8-speed AT : Relative fuel savings for ATs : AT ratio trend : Audi s Multitronic CVT : Audi s second generation Multitronic CVT : Increasing torque capacity of the Audi Multitronic CVT : Jatco s current CVT fitment range : CVT production volumes SupplierBusiness Ltd

11 165: Torotrak s infinitely variable transmission : A schematic of a toroidal transmission : Zeroshift drive rings : One-Mode Hybrid Input-Split EVT : Two-Mode Hybrid Input-Split EVT : One-Mode Hybrid Input-Split EVT : Two-Mode Hybrid with Input-Split and Compound-Split EVT Modes : Two mode hybrid transmission SupplierBusiness Ltd