Applications. Measuring and analyzing pressure, force and acceleration

Transcription

1 s Measuring and analyzing pressure, force and acceleration

2 Kistler in Brief measure. analyze. innovate. Kistler Instrumente AG enjoys a worldwide reputation as a leading supplier of measurement technology. Kistler sensors use the piezoelectric effect, piezoresistive or capacitive, to measure pressure, force and acceleration. Our aim The top priority at Kistler is to satisfy the needs and requirements of our customers. This includes developing leading-edge products and helping our customers to obtain optimum results from their application. Our philosophy Our success is based on innovative technologies, precise knowledge of the market and a comprehensive range of services. measure. analyze. innovate. measure. Our core strength is the use of sensors to measure physical magnitudes. analyze. The magnitudes measured have no intrinsic significance. It is only through analysis and evaluation of the measurements that a process can be understood. To this end, we supply our customers with all the necessary hardware and software. innovate. The information obtained in this way constitutes the basis for innovative products and serves to open up new horizons. Successful research Over the years, Kistler's heavy investment in research and development has generated a number of revolutionary innovations: the world's first commercial quartz sensor the patented two-wire constant current technology constituting the basis for today's sensors with integrated microelectronic circuitry the first high-temperature pressure sensors (up to 350 C, polystable quartz slice) the first three-component force measuring sensors. These innovations resulted in solutions to numerous measuring problems for the first time. Comprehensive services Kistler also supplies a comprehensive range of services, including technical advice for all applications, calibration and repair services, as well as regular training. Kistler today Established in Wintherthur (Switzerland) in 1959, Kistler currently employs 650 staff worldwide, around 15% of whom are engaged in research and development. In addition to its headquarters in Switzerland, Kistler is represented in over 50 countries and has group companies in Austria, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Norway, the Netherlands, Sweden, the United Kingdom, Japan, the USA, the Peoples Republic of China, India, Korea, Singapore and Taiwan. 2

3 Contents Products Pressure 4 Force 5 Acceleration 6 Electronics and Software 7 s Engines 8 Research and Development, Cylinder Pressure Monitoring Vehicles 12 Suspension, Safety, Tires, Road and Traffic Manufacturing 16 Research, Process Monitoring, Product testing Plastics processing 20 Injection Molding, Extrusion Biomechanics 24 Gait Analysis, Balance, Performance Acceleration s 26 Automotive/Transportation, Aerospace and Military, Condition Monitoring Other s 28 Chemicals/Pharmaceuticals, Explosives, Pneumatics and Hydraulics, Conveyances and Transport Tailor-made 30 System Solutions Service to Order 34 3

4 Pressure Kistler sensors measure pressures accurately and precisely over a wide range, even under extreme environmental conditions. In piezoelectric pressure sensors, the pressure acts on the surface of a diaphragm which converts it into a proportional force. This force is transmitted to a crystal, giving rise to an electric charge on the opposing surfaces. In piezoresistive sensors, the pressure is converted into an electrical signal by the elastic bending of a diaphragm made of monocrystalline silicon. A Wheatstone bridge consisting of semiconductor resistances diffused in the diaphragm is thereby detuned in proportion to the pressure. With both types of sensors, the output signal (the electric charge measured in pc or the voltage) is exactly proportional to the pressure applied. Piezoelectric sensors can be used to make only quasi-static and not static measurements. On the other hand, they are ideal for the precise measurement of fast processes, such as combustion pressure in an engine. Piezoresistive sensors, on the other hand, are perfect for measuring static pressures. Typical applications Dynamic measurement of cylinder pressure and fuel injection pressure in the development of internal combustion engines Continuous monitoring of cylinder pressure in large diesel engines Measuring explosive pressures in the development of air bags Regulating cavity pressure in injection molding so as to maximize molding quality and minimize scrap 6041A ThermoComp, water-cooled pressure sensor with measuring range bar. 4

5 Force Forces move masses Kistler sensors detect forces with infinite resolution and are extremely rugged. When subjected to a mechanical load, quartz produces an electrical charge in direct proportion to the force acting on it. In other words, the quartz acts both as a spring element and as a transducer. The force to be measured generates the signal directly. The output signal of a piezo crystal is exactly linear and free from hysteresis, as well as offering a wide measuring range. As quartz is highly rigid, the measuring deflection is very small, generally within a few micrometers. Thanks to their high natural frequency, quartz sensors are excellent for measuring ultra-fast high frequency processes in the microsecond range. Single and multi-component force sensors With Kistler quartz sensors, forces can be measured both directly and indirectly. With direct measurement, the sensor is placed directly in the path of the force, which results in high accuracy, irrespective of the point of application of the force. Where the sensor cannot be placed directly in the path of the force, indirect measurement is used, with a large part of the force being passed through a shunt. Where the force acts in only one direction, it can be measured with a singlecomponent force sensor. Forces acting on various axes require the use of multi-component sensors. Typical applications Quality assurance in manufacturing and assembly Monitoring of presses Measuring cutting forces in metal-cutting machining Biomechanics Product testing Material testing Dynamic weighing of moving vehicles Wheel force measurement 9333 Press Force Sensor with measuring range up to 120 kn. 5

6 Acceleration The same Kistler sensor can be used to detect changes in velocity from moderate to lightning speeds. Kistler sensors provide valuable information in countless applications. For example: The vibration signal generated by turbines or engines provides valuable information on the condition of various moving parts. The dynamic behavior of aircraft wings needs to be tested and checked. The bogies of high-speed trains have to be kept in position. It is necessary to determine the torsional behavior of vehicle bodies, the stability of machine anchorings, the vibrational behavior of the supporting structure of roller coasters. For dynamic applications, Kistler has been making use of piezoelectric sensors for many years. These sensors are highly reliable and they can be used to measure frequencies over a very wide range, from minimal amplitudes in the µg range to enormous shocks measuring thousands of g. To measure static or low frequency acceleration, micro machined silicon sensors are the technology of choice. Their measuring principle is based on a change in capacitance of the measuring element in proportion to acceleration. Typical applications Monitoring the vibration of rotational machines such as pumps and turbines Modal analysis in vehicle and aircraft development Measuring shock in car crash testing Seismic measurements in tunnel construction Machine tool monitoring General vibration measurement in the laboratory 8795A K-Shear triaxial accelerometer with a measuring range of ±50 g 6

7 Electronics and Software Measuring magnitudes is the first task. Analyzing the results is the next. Kistler products help to give us completely new insights. Even ultra-precise measurements do not in themselves constitute useful information. This is only achieved with the analysis and evaluation of the data. Kistler's electronic instruments and software products specifically designed for the various applications provide you with valuable support and new knowledge. Typical applications Measuring instruments for research laboratories Automation components for OEM Measuring instruments and control devices for production While our instruments deliver high performance, they are simple to operate. We offer you support, as necessary, with the installation and maintenance of measuring systems throughout their service life. 5015A Universal charge meter with a measuring range from ± 2 to pc. 7

8 Kistler In Practice: Engines Accurate knowledge and analysis of combustion chamber pressures are essential for the development of modern internal combustion engines. For over 40 years, Kistler has been the innovator and market leader in engine measuring technology. Our pioneering achievements include the development of the world s first M10 and M8 watercooled sensors, as well as the miniature pressure sensor with M5 thread. Our precision sensors provide indications and measurements of cylinder pressures, injection pressures as well as intake and exhaust pressures. Piezoelectric sensors are ideal for measuring combustion pressure, where the advantages of wide temperature range, small dimensions, high measuring dynamics and long service life are of high importance. Piezoresistive sensors are used for measuring injection pressures as well as for intake and exhaust measurements; they allow both static and dynamic measurements. These sensors measure pressure with a resistance bridge diffused in silicon. Thanks to the extreme miniaturization of its piezoelectric sensors, Kistler is also able to offer new measuring spark plugs and measuring glow plugs, which allow pressures to be measured without need for additional cylinder head bores. For signal conditioning, Kistler supplies high precision measuring amplifiers for use in the laboratory and on the test bed. The latest generation amplifiers allow the construction of modular and computer-controlled systems. 8

9 Research and Development Kistler pressure sensors, along with computer-controlled simulation tools, play a key role in the development of modern, high-performance, lowemission combustion engines. For example, the development of new methods of combustion, such as direct injection in diesel engines, would have been impossible without the precise recording of the pressure curve in the cylinder. Meanwhile, low-pressure indication has become established as an essential tool in the optimization of the gas exchange elements (e.g. intake manifold, exhaust system and valve control). Combustion As cylinder pressure measurement has to cope with very rapid dynamic processes associated with high loads, the sensor must exhibit good thermal shock behavior and knock resistance, as well as excellent linearity. The piezoelectric principle has proved a worldwide success in precision cylinder pressure measurement. Uncooled or water-cooled sensors are mounted in a separate indicating bore in the engine. Measuring spark plugs or glow plug adapters are also used for pressure measurements on production engines. To improve efficiency To reduce fuel consumption To reduce exhaust emissions To increase knock resistance To improve performance To improve cold starting behavior Gas exchange Low-pressure indication for intake and exhaust measurements is an important part of engine measurement technology, the main tool for this purpose being static and dynamic measuring piezoresistive pressure sensors. Kistler offers a wide range of water-cooled and vibration-damped adapters. Switching adapters which incorporate atmospheric pressure are also available for use with piezoresistive sensors. To optimize volumetric efficiency To optimize and analyze gas exchanges To obtain absolute cylinder pressure measurements during the gas exchange cycle To optimize the intake manifold To optimize valve control times Miniature pressure Miniature pressure- Rugged pressure Measuring spark Water-cooled sensor Miniature pressure sensor 6052B1 probe 6055BB, sensor 6125B plug 6117B 6041A, 6061B sensor 6001 Small, accurate, 6057A Uncooled pressure No indicating bore Standard sensor for Small, accurate, uncooled sensor for Extremely small sensor, ground- necessary, virtually precision measure- uncooled pressure extremely confined spaces. Front sealing with M5 thread. (4 mm diameter) uncooled pressure sensor. Mainly used in glow plug adapters. insulated, front flush mounting, shouldersealing, front 6.2 mm diameter. front flush sensor mounting. Available for all standard heat values and with M14 ments, low thermal shock error, M8 and M10 mounting thread. sensor for universal applications, shouldersealing with 5.55 mm front diameter. thread. 9

10 Injection As the injection process has a considerable influence on the fuel mixture, injection pressures and timing must be optimized in order to match the engine. Piezoresistive high-pressure sensors with measuring ranges up to bar are used for this purpose. In addition, Kistler supplies easily mounted clamp adapters for simple measurement taken directly at the injection line. To improve efficiency To improve particle emission in diesel engines To improve mixture formation To improve combustion To improve exhaust emissions To optimize injection nozzles Knock detection Knocking superimposes strong vibrations on the cylinder pressure curve; this can lead to engine damage within a short time. However, to obtain high performance and low fuel consumption, the engine has to be operated as close as possible to the knock limit. To calibrate knock control in the electronic engine management system, it is essential to have reliable measurements of the onset of knocking, particularly at high speeds. The sensor characteristics required here are stability and high resonance frequency. To optimize the electronic engine management system To improve engine performance To reduce exhaust emissions To prevent engine damage To match the electronic engine management system to different types of fuel Crank angle encoder Glow plug adapter High-pressure sensor 7013C, 7613C 6013CA, 6613CA 2613B System for measuring the crank angle of the 6535Q No indicator bore necessary, customer Standard piezoresistive sensor for measuring Sensor with low thermal shock error and very long service Rugged sensor with M10 thread for continuous monitoring crankshaft for crank- specific design, injection pressures up life. Suitable for use and control of gas shaft-synchronous M8/M10 thread. to bar, in industrial condi- engines. Integrated cylinder pressure M10 thread. tions (dirt, humidity charge amplifier with measurements up to etc). range switching /min. 10

11 Cylinder Pressure Monitoring Cylinder pressure monitoring is the key to the efficient operation of large diesel engines and gas engines. It allows faults and wear to be detected and corrected at an early stage. Kistler offers the right sensor for every application, from simple peak pressure measurement to the more demanding online monitoring. Diesel engines Kistler has developed the extra longlife 6613 for continuous cylinder pressure monitoring. This rugged sensor is particularly suitable for large engines. The 6613 is primarily suitable for manufacturers of evaluation systems. For startup and maintenance, Kistler offers handy and easy to operate measuring instruments and software. To reduce fuel consumption To optimize maintenance intervals To detect damage at an early stage Gas engines To minimize emissions and maximize efficiency in the operation of gas engines, the combustion curve must be optimized for each individual cylinder. The best way of doing this is by regulating the cylinder pressure. To this end, Kistler has developed a continuous operation sensor specifically designed for the control of gas engines. Its excellent long-term stability and low shortterm drift make it suitable for difficult measuring tasks. To detect/control knock To detect faults To limit peak pressure To calculate the performance of individual cylinders 6302A, 6352A Small, rugged measuring probe for continuous monitoring of gas and diesel engines. Available with charge output or integrated amplifier. 6229A, 6729A For measurements on diesel engine injection systems and for use in hydraulic test beds on large engines. Integral impedance converter. 2515A Handheld peak-pressure measuring instrument for slow and mediumfast running diesel engines. Memory for 20 recordings and PC software for evaluating the cylinder pressure curve. 11

12 Kistler In Practice: Vehicles Hub Rim Rim adapter Measuring wheel To improve vehicle safety, it is essential to understand the critical processes involved. By measuring pressure, force and acceleration, Kistler sensors create the basis for improvements. Nowadays in motor vehicle engineering, improvements are possible only with accurate measurement of the critical parameters. Kistler offers the automotive industry a broad spectrum of sensors for the measurement of force, strain, torque, pressure and acceleration. These are used in the development of vehicles and tires, as well as in crash testing and in restraint systems. Kistler sensors supply the data needed for constant improvements in safety, whether on the active side (tires, suspension, braking systems) or the passive side (crash systems, driving comfort, road load monitoring). Chassis/Suspension The safety of a vehicle is highly dependent on the design of chassis and suspension. Unsprung masses, i.e. wheels and wheel suspension, have a great influence on vehicle handling. Development engineers strive for a compromise which best combines good handling, high cornering speeds and passenger comfort. In 1981, Kistler introduced the first rotating wheel dynamometers into the market. Equipped with quartz sensors, for the first time they enabled measurements to be made on vehicles at speeds up to 200 km/h. However, as these first dynamometers were much heavier than a standard wheel, they affected the vehicle's handling characteristics. Today, Kistler's six-component measuring wheels only add about three kilograms to the weight of the vehicle. Yet, thanks to ultra-lightweight construction using high strength alloys, they are sturdy enough to measure forces and frequencies far exceeding the normal operating range of a passenger car. Kistler's rotating wheel dynamometers also help development engineers to improve ABS and traction control systems, when quartz and silicon sensors simultaneously detect the pressure in the braking and hydraulic systems and in the control valves. Hub adapter RoaDyn P A 1-component measuring wheel for heavy passenger vehicles, light commercial vehicles and SUVs. For measuring drive and braking moments. The signals are transmitted by wireless. 12

13 Dynamics The Kistler measuring wheel illustrated below on Page 12 represents the current state of the art, with a single sensor making it possible to carry out drive, braking and coasting tests as well as statutory acceptance tests. The sensor is screwed to an aluminium production rim and can be fitted easily to any car in the shortest possible time. The data measured are transmitted by wireless to a receiver and control unit. Even at the lowest torques, the Kistler single-component measuring wheel provides the highest resolution without having to compromise its rugged design. Strength No matter how sophisticated the methods of calculation, the operational strength of car components and entire vehicles needs to be constantly tested on the test bed. The data recorded on the test track can be introduced on the test bed in a compressed form and used to load components until they fail. Kistler sensors and measuring wheels enable accurate monitoring of all forces introduced. Thanks to their rugged construction, piezoelectric sensors are particularly suitable for use under these extreme conditions. Comfort The bogies of high-speed trains are complex electromechanical systems which need to absorb the loads generated by high-speed motion and, at the same time, to ensure the safety and comfort of passengers. Multi-axis accelerometers sensors are built into these bogies to measure vibration and forces acting on the railcars in different terrains and to draw the appropriate conclusions. Continuous monitoring of vibration also enables changes to be detected and remedied immediately without having to wait through normal servicing intervals. To maintain a constant high speed through curves and over difficult terrain, thus reducing journey times and helping the railroad to compete with other forms of transport. To increase passenger safety and comfort by stabilizing the railcar. To minimize rolling stock breakdowns, downtimes and wear, thus making rail travel more reliable and extending the service life of the equipment. RoaDyn S A1 6-component strain gage measuring wheel for passenger vehicles, light weight carbon fiber design. RoaDyn V6HT 9274A 6-component strain gage measuring wheel for medium and large trucks. For measuring all forces and moments acting on the wheel. Accelerometers Single axis and multi-axis sensors provide reliable measurements from 0 Hz to 20 khz. 13

14 Vehicles Safety Passive safety defines the behavior of a vehicle in the event of any impact, whether from the front, side or rear. Vehicles are designed with the utmost care using powerful CAD tools, but, when it comes to safety, nothing can be left to chance. Only crash testing under the most realistic conditions possible can provide the information needed. For over 25 years, car manufacturers such as Audi, Ford, Volvo, Daimler- Chrysler and BMW have relied on Kistler force measuring plates. And with good reason! The characteristics of piezoelectric measuring instruments are perfectly suited to the requirements of crash-test measurement. Their sensitivity is independent of the center of pressure and, despite the wide measuring range, the resolution is large enough to detect even small changes in force. Customers also appreciate the way that Kistler tailors every measuring device to their own individual requirements. For example, to equip the Volvo safety center, Kistler has just developed corner segments for offset crash tests which are capable of measuring forces of up to 1.5 MN in two directions simultaneously. Crash Kistler's modular measuring system permits a flexible response to all customer requirements. Each segment consists of a baseplate with several force measuring plates and a charge amplifier module. The segments forming the crash barrier come from the factory fully wired so that the system can be rapidly installed on the anchor plate. The charge amplifiers, which are controlled via a common bus, feed the measurands as analog signals to be recorded on the computer. The rugged construction of Kistler crash barriers guarantees reliable measurements even after thousands of tests. Vehicle components Kistler sensors can be used in dummies and restraining devices (safety belts, airbags) as well as in helmet testing. Tires Tires the legs of the car have an enormous influence not only on safety but also on efficiency and comfort. For the development of new tires and the improvement of existing ones, manufacturers the world over rely on Kistler's Fixed Wheel Dynamometers. The high rigidity of the quartz dynamometer allows accurate force and torque measurements to be taken over a range of several hundred hertz. The data obtained provides information on the interaction between tyres and road. There is a choice between two standard versions: one for car tires with forces typically up to 30 kn and a version for trucks with forces up to 70 kn. Over a hundred of Kistler's fixed wheel dynamometers have been sold. They are used by almost every manufacturer of tire test beds, as well as by universities and research laboratories engaged in fundamental research testing. Tire data characteristics such as roll resistance, slip angle, directional stability, noise and damping provide manufacturers with information which is vital for the continued improvement of their products. Crash barrier, Ford Motor Co. Crash barrier with swiveling facility, equipped with 3-component sensors. SmartCrash barrier Audi AG World innovation with integrated electronics and digital preprocessing. RoaDyn P A This measuring hub measures forces and moments acting on the tires. 14

15 Road and Traffic Kistler measuring technology not only contributes to the active and passive safety of vehicles but also helps to protect roads against overloaded vehicles. Overall weight is not the sole factor. Damage to road surfaces and substructure comes mainly from excessive wheel and axle loads, stress is increasing to the fourth power of the wheel load. The Kistler WIM ( Weigh in Motion ) system allows axle loads to be determined as vehicles drive past. Thanks to WIM, overloaded vehicles can be taken off the road promptly, thereby preserving the road surface, avoiding expensive maintenance work and traffic congestion and increasing road safety. Road surfaces Kistler Lineas force sensors can be incorporated into all standard road surfaces. The elastic properties of Lineas sensors and their response to abrasion correspond largely to those of the road surface itself. This is important because the quality of a WIM system equally depends on how well the sensor characteristics conform to those of the roadwear characteristics. Road surfaces and substructures need to be protected against overloaded and badly loaded vehicles Repairs are not only costly but also result in traffic congestion The recording and elimination of overloaded or wrongly loaded vehicles results in a long term improvement in traffic safety Weight measurement In tire research, dynamic measurement of wheel load distribution is an important means of assessing force and pressure distribution within the tread contact. It is also important in road building research to investigate the factors involved in serious damage to the road surface. Modulas sensors are indispensable for road surface management systems and for research into related phenomena such as cracking and rutting. Collecting statistical data (number of vehicles, classification, loading etc.) Protection against overload (preselection, overload monitoring, bridge and building protection) Road tolls Road surface research (cracking and rutting) Road surface management systems Lineas 9195C Only worldwide WIM sensor which can be contour shaped after installation. Modulas 9197A5 32-channel quartz sensor. Charge amplifiers 5153A 9/18-channel charge amplifier for Lineas sensors. Charge amplfiers 5151A 32-channel charge amplifier for Modulas sensor. 15

16 Kistler In Practice: Manufacturing Recorded data permits repeatability, thus allowing the quality of manufactured products to be increased and documented. Precision and accurate process monitoring are of great importance in industrial production. Sensors permit processes to be measured by recording the forces, torques, strains and vibrations in machinery and tools. When this data is analyzed and recorded, the manufacturing processes become repeatable, thus allowing product quality to be monitored, documented and improved. To obtain optimum results, the measuring system must be designed to fit the application. This includes the sensor, cable, charge amplifier and the appropriate indicating and evaluation instruments. Kistler measuring technology permits measurement, monitoring and control of a whole range of manufacturing processes. Kistler piezoelectric sensors offer various technical advantages. As well as having a wide measuring range which makes them highly resistant to overload, they are ideal for recording rapid processes and have a practically unlimited service life. F Electrical charge [pc/n] Control signals Analog signal [V/N] PLC Force sensor L w Charge amplifier, Control monitor Machine control Analog signal [V/mm] Displacement sensor 1-component load washer 9021A Universally applicable for maximum forces from 7.5 to kn. 1-component Press Force Sensor 9343 Ready to install force sensor, three calibrated measuring ranges Highly sensitive force sensor 9205 Measurement of the smallest tensile and compression forces Miniature force sensor 9211A Extremely compact design, only 6 mm diameter. Charge meter 5015A Flexible configuration. The measurands (force, pressure, etc.) are Control Monitor CoMo View 5863A2 Web server for production monitoring of manufacturing pro- for 100, 10 and 1 %. 0 ± 50 N. shown in the display. cesses. 16

17 Primary Forming The correct proportion of force and pressure is crucially important in forming a shapeless substance into a solid body (e.g. pressing powder into tablets, pellets, sinter tools, or die-casting metals under pressure). Kistler's flexible and reliable measuring technology serves to optimize the shape, density and strength of the manufactured parts. To achieve minimum tolerances Re-forming Whether coining, rolling, deep drawing, forging, punching or pressing of metal parts: Kistler force measurement sensors permit prompt detection of errors, for example defective parts or non-conforming materials arising from varying press forces. Kistler measuring technology detects errors in dimensions, material characteristics and the positioning of fed-in parts Machines and tools are protected against overload by online monitoring of the process forces SlimLine force sensor VarioComp force 1 or 3-component HighSens strain sen- Longitudinal measu- Industrial charge am- 9133B sensor 9601A force sensor 9602 sor 9232A ring pin 9243A plifier ICAM, 5073A Compact design, Number of measuring Integrated electronic Measurement of Measurement of 1, 2, 3 or 4 channels, with integrated cable axes, cable or circuitry, manual forces at machine forces and strain in rugged case rated at for mounting in connector variations measuring range surfaces, structures, mounting IP65. structures. as requested by the switching 1:5. highly sensitive. in M10 thread. customer. 17

18 Metal Cutting Machining The aim of metal-cutting machining (i.e. turning, milling, grinding or boring) is to achieve processes which are as fully automatic and reliable as possible. One to three-component force measuring sensors are fitted in the base plate of a turret-type tool head. They measure the machining force which supplies the necessary information on cutting, feed and passive forces. At the same time, they protect machine tools against overload or tool collisions and prevent unnecessary wear. Kistler measuring technology optimizes the machining process, making it safer and more efficient Assembly and Joining In longitudinal presswork, clinching or bonding (i.e. in the permanent joining of parts), the consistency of large scale production is best monitored by measuring the force applied, using piezoelectric sensors positioned directly in the force flux. Alternatively, the quality can be monitored indirectly by strain measurement. Typical areas of application: Force measurement during the crimping of cable ends ensures fault-free electrical connection. Automated systems carry out assembly operations with force and torque monitoring, thereby guaranteeing consistently high quality of the mass-produced products. Measurement of the electrode clamping force in spot welding optimizes the welded joint, e.g. in vehicle body construction. Screw tightening with torque-controlled assembly operations, thereby ensuring the fault-free manufacture and documentation of safety components such as airbags or steering columns. Measurement of force-proportional strain on structures of wobble riveting machines ensures high strength joining of components. The joining process can be documented Conforming and non-conforming parts are detected objectively Constant monitoring of the condition of the machine Control Monitor 5859A CoMo II-S for process monitoring of a forcedisplacement curve during manufacture. 18

19 Product Testing Testing machines High quality products require qualified test methods. Kistler's wide product range enables optimum measurement solutions in the widest variety of testing systems. Kistler equipment measures tensile forces in material testing machines, records impact forces and accelerations in crash test systems, or analyzes forces and vibration on vehicle test beds. These measurements are ultra-precise, the compact and enormously rigid construction of Kistler force sensors allowing highly dynamic processes to be recorded. Switches and connectors s Quantity production of connectors, springs or contact elements requires reliable error detection. End products of the highest quality can be produced by means of a test interval in full or in the form of random sampling to record the force or torque function. Safety components (e.g. the plug connections of airbag systems) need to be absolutely reliable. Equally, contact elements (relays) need to function reliably even after thousands of cycles. It is thanks to Kistler spring-force measuring technology that millions of PC users can rely on their mouse to keep clicking without fail. 3-component force 3-component quartz Reaction torque sen- 3-comp. dynamome- 2-comp. dynamome- Multichannel charge sensor 9067B force link 9377B sor 9349A ter 9257B ter 9125A amplifier 5070A Compact design, for Preloaded and Torque measurement Force measurement Cutting force measu- For 4 8 indepen- force measurement in the X, Y and Z axes. calibrated, for measuring tensile and compression forces. of ±1... ±1 000 N m, 2 calibrated measuring ranges of 100, 10 %. with high resolution, high natural frequency, splash-proof IP 67. rement on a rotating tool, up to max /min. dent measuring channels, remote controllable via IEEE-488 or RS-232C. 19

20 Kistler In Practice: Plastics Processing Kistler products are used to monitor and control processes on the basis of pressure and temperature measurement, thus permitting an increase in both quality and productivity. To optimize, monitor and control processes, pressure and temperature curves must be accurately measured and evaluated. In this regard, the dynamics of the sensors and the recording location are of critical importance. Kistler sensors are applied precisely where the products are manufactured, i.e. in the mold, while miniaturization allows them to be used in complex components. High precision electronic circuitry is needed to condition and evaluate the sensor signals, and for this reason many OEMs use Kistler charge amplifiers. In addition to amplification of the signals, these amplifiers are increasingly employed to carry out more complex control operations. Kistler system technology optimizes, monitors and controls processes on the basis of pressure and temperature measurements. This minimizes waste, improves quality, reduces cycle times, shortens set-up times and, in short, brings about a considerable increase in productivity. In cooperation with research organizations, Kistler is constantly engaged in developing new methods to increase the efficiency of plastics processing operations. Injection Molding In injection molding, the processes in the mold determine the characteristics of the finished product. There is no way of observing or precisely calculating these processes. Mold cavity pressure is the only quantity to describe the entire process from the injection phase, through the compression and holding pressure phase, to the residual cooling time. Mold cavity pressure correlates with all the characteristics of the molded part, such as dimensions, burs, sink marks, blowholes, shrinkage, distortion, weight and morphology. Optimum molding characteristics are achieved when the mold cavity pressure exhibits a constant gradient during the injection phase. At the moment of volumetric filling, a switch must be made from the speed-regulated injection phase to the pressure-regulated holdingpressure phase. At this point in time, the pressure in the mold is marked by a characteristic kink in the curve. The subsequent compression phase is followed by the holding-pressure phase in which the volume contraction is equalized. At the time of ejection from the mold, the pressure must have fallen to the ambient pressure. Kistler puts these scientific findings to good use in developing systems for process optimization, monitoring and control. Pressure sensor 6157B Mold cavity pressure sensor with 4 mm diameter, for extremely high mold temperature. Pressure sensor 6159A Mold cavity pressure sensor with 2.5 mm diameter, for extremely high mold temperature. 20

21 Mold cavity pressure The change in volume on cooling of the melt is compensated by additional holding pressure. Cavity is volumetrically filled Melt reaches sensor position Injection start Gate sealing Atmospheric pressure Start of shrinkage (until ambient temperature is reached). Time Mold cavity pressure Direct measurement Direct measurement in the cavity is the preferred option for recording mold cavity pressure as it is highly accurate and has advantages in processes involving large quantities. Since the plastic melt is in direct contact with the sensor, there is no need for pins or transmission media. Moreover, the front of most sensors can be adapted to the surface of the cavity so that no impressions are left on the molded part. Extremely precise measurement Melt temperatures up to 450 C Free positioning in the cavity Absolutely rigid mounting Indirect measurement With indirect measurement, the pressure in the cavity is transmitted via an ejector pin to a force sensor. The cavity pressure can be calculated by means of the diameter of the pin and the force measured. This option is used when there is no space available to install a direct-measuring sensor. Nozzle pressure measurement Sensors in the nozzle or screw antechamber enable the melt pressure and melt temperature to be recorded. The injection work can be calculated from the integral of the melt pressure over the screw travel. This result provides information on the viscosity of the material. With hydraulic injection molding machines, the melt pressure is used as an optional control variable alongside the hydraulic pressure. This achieves reproducible process control. In machines with an electric drive, the melt pressure is the only suitable control variable. Monitoring of material fluctuations (viscosity) Optional control variable with hydraulic machines to increase reproducibility Control variable in electrical machines Tie-bar strain measurement High closing forces are especially important in injection molding machines used for manufacturing large molded parts. Here, the loading on the tie bars needs to be known in order to prevent expensive breakdowns. Kistler longitudinal measuring pins screwed into the center of the tie bar expand in proportion to the closing forces, thus serving to measure the strain. This measuring principle can be used to control closing forces in all machine sizes. Monitoring and control of the closing force Protection of the tie bar against overload Mold protection Detection of structural faults in molds (squareness, rigidity) Used for small spaces Used only for process optimization No need to dismantle when changing mold inserts Pressure sensor 6183AE Mold cavity pressure sensor with single-wire technology, particularly for multiple tools, front diameter of 1 mm. Pressure temperature sensor 6190A Combined mold cavity pressure and contact temperature sensor, 4 mm diameter. Force sensor 9211A For indirect measurement of the mold cavity pressure via an ejector pin, 6 mm diameter. Measuring tongue 9221A For indirect measurement of the mold cavity pressure via an ejector pin. Melt pressure sensor 4085A Combined nozzle pressure and temperature sensor with 1 / 2 thread. 21

22 Plastics Processing Measuring amplifier Amplifiers convert the signals from sensors into voltages and currents, their circuitry needing to meet the highest accuracy requirements. Rugged charge amplifiers now exist which are capable not only of coping with signal conversion under severe production conditions but can also carry out control tasks. A further development of the industrial charge amplifier comes equipped with a special fuzzy-logic chip, which detects the volumetric filling of the cavity and automatically switches the molding machine from the injection pressure to the holding pressure phase. This reduces the setting-up time and leads to higher reproducibility of the process. Molded part characteristics are kept within a narrow tolerance band and scrap is considerably reduced. Signal conditioners are used in application technology as well as research and development. They allow the recording of up to 32 variables from the injection molding process and can be adapted to any measuring task. : Charge amplifier Ultra accurate Built for industrial applications SMARTAmp: Shortens the set-up phase Achieves high process consistency : Signal conditioner High flexibility for laboratory systems Recording of the most diverse quantities Process monitoring and analysis The continuous monitoring of mold cavity pressure allows all process fluctuations to be detected. Thus, changes in the characteristics of the molded part due for example to fluctuations in viscosity or machine wear can be detected and corrected directly, so that scrap is minimized. In addition to process monitoring, with many injectionspecific functions, the DataFlow software facilitates documentation of the produc-tion process, enabling manufacturers to meet this important obligation to their customers. Process analysis represents an important step in process optimization. Optimum molded part qualities are achieved only when the cavity pressure curve matches the ideal curve. Kistler systems allow simple analysis and thus appropriate and rapid optimization of the injection molding process. Automatically detects material and process fluctuations Automatically documents the production process Simplifies optimization Process control Process control systems automatically detect changes in the process and in the quality of the molded part, as well as automatically correcting the machine adjustment parameters. Thus, optimum quality is guaranteed at all times and without manual intervention. Over the long term, these systems minimize costs and maximize productivity. Kistler applies only state-of-the-art technology to achieve these aims. The SMARTAmp charge amplifier uses fuzzy logic to analyze cavity pressure for fully automatic optimization of the switch point from injection to holding pressure in the production process. Fully automatic compensation of process and material fluctuations Minimization of scrap rates Maximum productivity DataFlow 2805A System for process monitoring, documentation and analysis. Charge amplifier 5039A Industrial charge amplifier. Charge amplifier 5049A Industrial charge amplifier with fuzzy logic for volumetric switching. Signal conditioner 2853A Modular laboratory system for signal conditioning. Signal conditioner 2859A Modular signal conditioning system for industrial use. x t OnLine Max Cavity 1 Cavity 2 Cavity 3 Cavity Mean Cycle No.: Time Min 22

23 Extrusion The dynamic pressure at the extruder head is the significant quantity which provides information on the condition of the melt. The melt pressure determines the quality of the end product with regard to its dimensions, its filling and its warping in the cooling or vulcanizing process. By integrating pressure measuring sensors in the machine control system, considerably higher efficiency is achieved by reducing start-up waste and scrap. Compounding In contrast to compounding on a kneader, extrusion-mixed compounds are manufactured continuously. Both thermoplastic and elastomer compounds are manufactured on such systems, which are used in both injection molding and the extrusion of end products. Pressure and temperature monitoring in the individual loading areas provide specific information on the homogenization process and the loading of the compounds. Melt pressure measurement Kistler's piezoresistive sensors are used to measure the pressure and temperature of the melt. They have a rugged diaphragm, which measures the pressure directly without a coupling agent and transfers it to the measuring element. In consequence, these sensors are particularly suitable for abrasive media, for foodstuffs and for the manufacture of compounds for finished parts which come into contact with foodstuffs. The separate or integral signal amplifiers, which come with analog or digital compensation, are readily incorporated into machine control systems. Rugged, long-life technology Suitable for use in the food industry For use in the manufacture of compounds approved for contact with foodstuffs Both digital and analog signals Compatible with existing systems and equipment Innovative solutions at the forefront of technology Melt pressure sensor 4090B, 4091B 100 to bar, with rugged diaphragm and various amplifiers to form a complete measuring system. Digital compensating amplifier 4620A Digital compensation for maximum accuracy. Analog and digital output for pressure and temperature. Melt pressure sensor 4096A, 4097A 200 to bar with integrated amplifier, rugged diaphragm and analog output, optionally with temperature measurement. 23

24 Kistler In Practice: Biomechanics ,3 0,2 0,1 eccentric concentric flight phase Landing Force Speed Height of jump Kistler force plates are used to supply precise information on the magnitude and behavior of the forces acting on the body, whether to improve physical performance or for medical diagnosis. Biomechanics is a relatively new science; it describes the processes involved in the movements of living beings. Such movements depend on the application of forces and, as these are often invisible to the naked eye, orthopedists, athletes and their trainers, shoe manufacturers, ergonomists, neurologists and many other specialists, all rely on data supplied by Kistler force plates. The equipment provides them with precise information on the magnitude and behavior of the forces acting on the body, whether to improve performance or for medical diagnosis. Human beings may have started to walk upright over a million years ago but it is only since 1969 that it has been possible to measure and analyze gait accurately and reliably. In that year, Kistler brought out the first force plates to become available on the market. This pioneering achievement in measuring technology now forms part of the standard equipment of specialists in biomechanics all over the world. Kistler force plates enable forces acting between foot and ground to be recorded accurately and in real time during walking, standing, running, jumping and sliding. The Bioware software developed by Kistler processes the signals and supplies information on the resulting force and its direction, the center of pressure, the frictional forces and the torques, as well as performance and energy. Kistler force plates are used in three main areas: Gait analysis in orthopedics, prosthetics and rehabilitation Measurement and analysis of performance and stresses in sport, in ergonomics and in the development of shoes and floor coverings Measurement and analysis of balance (posturography) in neurology, psychology and pharmacology, as well as orthopedics Performance High performance force plate 9281C Multicomponent force plate with a wide range of applications and excellent measuring dynamics, 400 x 600 mm. 24

25 Gait Analysis Accurate, quantifiable information is what is needed for the reliable diagnosis of human gait and that is exactly what Kistler force plates provide. They detect the slightest variations and asymmetries in force behavior and so are able to provide the specialist with valuable additional information. Accurate, quantifiable information for research, diagnosis and therapy Easy to install and use Balance We control our balance with tiny, completely unconscious movements, minimal changes in forces or shifts in the center of pressure determining safety and stability. It is only patients with impaired balance who come to realize what a complex task it is to stand upright and walk. Thanks to their highly sensitive piezoelectric sensors, Kistler force plates are particularly suitable for measurements in this domain. Detecting and quantifying various pathologies in neurology and orthopaedics Examining the effectiveness of medication Performance The level of performance in top class sport is enormous. Winning requires not just talent and a bit of luck but, above all, optimum preparation through intensive training. Force, stamina, coordination the limits are being extended all the time. The difference between winning and losing is constantly diminishing and so, too, is the difference between health and injury. Whether in training or in competition, athletes can use Kistler force plates to reach their physical limits in a controlled manner. The equipment permits targeted, monitored training and show the athletes how they are progressing. The Kistler Quattro Jump force plate is used routinely in performance diagnosis. It quantifies explosive force and stamina by means of standardized jumps irrespective of the type of sport. To optimize training programs in preparation for competition To adjust the intensity of training after an injury Benchmarking To make selections and compare performances within the team High performance force plate 9287B Multicomponent force plate; its large dimensions make it particularly suitable for sports research, 600 x 900 mm. Slimline force plate 9286B Flat, mobile 3-component force plate, particularly suitable for gait and balance analysis. Modular system allowing very simple assembly, 400 x 600 mm. Quattro Jump force plate system 9290A One-component force plate with software for sports performance diagnosis, 900 x 900 mm. 25

26 Kistler In Practice: Acceleration Accelerometers are used in every avenue of the dynamic test environment and Kistler has developed families of products covering this expansive range of applications. From ultra low movement encountered in wafer fabrication technology to shock spectra reconstruction experienced in pyrotechnic separation event studies, and everywhere between, an optimal sensor solution is available. Static events are captured with the K-Beam static and low frequency product offerings. Very high frequency activity is routinely measured using any of several miniature piezoelectric single axis or triaxial types. Many sensing technologies including piezoceramic, natural quartz and variable capacitance approaches have been extensively explored and are employed as needed to accommodate the demands of the applications. 26

27 Automotive/Transportation Ride quality has been receiving tremendous attention in recent years. New vehicle designs are presenting less noise to the occupants and the subtle details of the intricacies of road/tire interaction, bump & jar response, and the overall feel of the ride are important to every customer. The K-Beam family covers the low to mid frequency range of many investigations and the many piezoelectric offerings extend into the higher frequency areas of interest. light in mass to generate minimum extra load high sensitivity to ensure reliable signals ruggedly built to guarantee long service life Aerospace and Military Very demanding applications are encountered in the military and aerospace industry where any error may present a life-threatening situation. This category also covers a tremendous range of applications and nearly all accelerometer product offerings have been used in these important investigations. Flutter testing, rocket launch pad dynamics, aircraft EMA, ammunition investigations, helicopter rotor reactions, etc. are a few of the common measurements performed. high sensitivity to ensure reliable signals ruggedly built to guarantee long service life hermetically sealed to withstand the toughest environments Condition Monitoring Kistler accelerometers are used in a wide variety of condition monitoring applications, such as damage detection and predictive maintenance. It is important to detect equipment malfunction before expensive catastrophic failure or safety issues occur. Other condition monitoring applications include tilt/ angle sensing, bearing/rotating machinery diagnostics, shipping recorders for packaging industry, elevator and active control, robotics, sports/medical, civil engineering structures including bridge/ dam/buildings and roads. Accelerometers used in this category include K-Shear piezoelectric and K-Beam capacitive accelerometers. robust and hermetically-sealed to guarantee reliable measurement high sensitivity to ensure reliable signals ground-isolated to prevent ground loops K-Beam 8310A Capacitive sensor for low frequencies. K-Shear 8702B Universal acceleration sensor for up to 500 g. Piezotron acoustic emission sensor 8152B Rugged sensor for acoustic emissions up to 900 khz. K-Beam 8393A Triaxial sensor for low frequencies. K-Shear 8794A Universal triaxial sensor for up to 500 g. Impulse force hammer 9722A To analyze the dynamic behavior of mechanical structures. 27

28 Kistler In Practice: Other s Kistler sensors are used to monitor a whole range of equipment and instruments. They are distinguished by high resolution and overload resistance and OEMs can rely on them completely. In addition to many applications in piezoelectric technology, Kistler has developed piezoresistive and capacitive pressure sensors for a whole range of uses. Kistler pressure measuring technology is universally successful in many areas: in mechanical engineering, in instrumentation, in the chemical industry, in research, in transport, in the energy sector, in medicine and in the food industry. Other typical areas of application include heating/air conditioning/ventilation, the textile industry, packaging, printing, oil and gas supplies and construction. Chemicals/Pharmaceuticals Typical areas of application for Kistler pressure transmitters in the chemical and pharmaceutical industries include: autoclaves, off-shore installations, highpressure/high-temperature applications, plastics production plant (see also pp ), as well as in processing plant for paints, varnishes and adhesives. Explosion-proof sensors Rugged construction Field bus connection Food Kistler's piezoresistive pressure-measuring sensors are used in dispensing and filling systems, in flushing and cleaning systems, in homogenizers and sterilizers, in food extrusion and in countless other sectors of the food industry. High repeatability High density Food and Drug Administration approval 28

29 Photograph courtesy of: Arbeitsgruppe für Unfallmechanik Expolsives Kistler's front-sealing high-pressure sensors are regarded as state-of-the-art worldwide. They are used, for example, in the development of airbag ignition caps or in weapons technology for testing and development purposes. Type 6215, for example, is the NATO standard for acceptance testing of ammunition. High repeatability of measurands thanks to very low mounting sensitivity Very good linearity over the entire measuring range Long service life as a result of front sealing and optimized diaphragm design Insensitivity to contamination Pneumatics and Hydraulics Kistler sensors and transmitters cover pressures from 0.2 to bar and a temperature range from 40 to 300 C. The sensors in the accuracy classes 0.05 to 2% FS and are highly compatible with most standard media. Piezoresistive silicon and ceramic sensors are used for the rather lower pressures in pneumatics. Typical applications include train braking systems, control systems, closure systems, safety barriers, compressors, transmission control systems, etc. The sensors used in hydraulics have to meet stringent requirements long service life, frequent load changes and impacts reaching into the overload range. Kistler's piezoresistive silicon sensors are able to meet these requirements, thanks to a fully welded construction and an integrated deflector. Typical applications include hydraulic units, mechanical engineering, injection molding machines, hydraulic elevators, etc. Conveyances and Transport Kistler sensors are used to increase the safety and comfort of railroads and cableways, measuring for example braking pressure and braking force. Other applications include vibration measurement, derailment detection, acceleration measurement in tilting trains, clamping force monitoring on endless ropeways, etc. Special force-measuring sensors for periodical testing of block brakes and disk brakes Derailment prevention through detection of the excessive vibration generated when wheels leave the rail Clamping-force measurement for coupled chair and cable car lifts (a legal requirement in many countries) Large selection Optimum cost-efficiency Extremely long service life High-pressure sensor High-pressure sensor Pressure transmitter Pressure sensor OEM pressure sensor Measuring brake 4065A 6229A RAG 25 Ceramet RES15A shoe Sensor for static and dynamic measurement Rugged, dynamic sensor for measurements in injection Rugged hydraulic transmitter. Suitable for OEM applications. The small diameter and high temperature application of this Comes with two special force-measuring elements for testing up to bar. systems. sensor make it ideal rolling stock braking for down hole systems. applications. 29

30 Kistler In Practice: Tailor-made System Solutions Kistler designs specific system solutions tailor-made to customer requirements. Where standard components do not provide the best solution to a problem, Kistler also develops customized products. Sensors are the key components for modern equipment and systems. However, measuring technology covers far more than just sensors. Producing a measuring system for individual tasks also requires customized signal processing and evaluation, plus the relevant interfaces. The mechatronic approach i.e. an interdisciplinary approach drawing together mechanical engineering, electronics and information technology helps to see ideas and problems from different aspects, and thus to develop new measuring solutions. This is how Kistler goes about producing customized measuring systems. Systems comprising standard components The selection of the right sensors and, in particular, their installation are just as important as their accuracy and quality. We advise our customers on the evaluation, design and commissioning of the desired measuring system, relying on our wide and comprehensive range of sensors, along with our modular electronic systems for signal conditioning and software for measurement analysis. Accurate analysis of the process variables is crucial for integrated quality monitoring during the production process. Extensive measurements are frequently taken in advance, thus making it possible to determine qualityrelevant quantities and to define their evaluation. We provide test engineers and hire equipment to our customers to conduct such preliminary testing. In this regard, we distinguish between Systems assembled from standard components and Solutions which we tailor to customer requirements. Force measurement in a wind tunnel Six-component balance for wing models constructed using standard three-component force sensors. Force measurement during skiing Two identical dynamometers, installed between binding and ski, measure the forces and moments which are transferred by the skier to the ski. 30

31 Standard components individually tailored to customer requirements Many components from our wide range can be tailored exactly to customer requirements by simple adjustments or adaptations. Hence, we are able to respond quickly and easily to any individual measuring requirements by using standard components. Instrument for detecting cavitation in vacuum pumps Cavitation is an abnormal flow process in liquid pumps caused by sudden condensation of vapor during compression. This process generates noise and sooner or later will result in destruction of the pump. Kistler's Type 4672 cavitation detector, which was developed in close cooperation with a well-known manufacturer of vacuum systems for the chemical industry, is used to detect cavitation in liquid ring vacuum pumps. Detection is achieved by the evaluation of a dynamic component superimposed on the pressure signal using a special vector algorithm. The piezoresistive transmitter (Type 4285AE1VO166), used to measure the pressure, is mounted directly in the pump suction nozzle. Since cavitation varies from one pump to the next, the instrument was developed in such a way that the pumpspecific cavitation point can simply be programmed in. Crash force measurement In this aircraft landing gear system, the reaction forces from the landing gear are measured with a special three-component force plate. Machining process monitoring Multi-component load washers measure the machining forces at the tool spindle, thus permitting safe and reliable process monitoring. Cavitation detector 4672 Pressure transmitter and evaluation unit with visual display of the cavitation condition. 31

32 Tailor-made System Solutions Development of tailor-made systems Kistler has experienced engineers on hand for the definition, development and production of customized solutions. They develop tailored systems for applications in research, development or production where an optimum solution cannot be obtained with the use of standard components. If produced in sufficient quantity, these applicationspecific measuring systems can offer an advantageous cost/benefit ratio. Areas of application cover conventional mechanical and system engineering, as well as materials processing, automation and the automotive industry. Crash barrier with corner sensors Kistler also offers optimum solutions for challenging applications. 32

33 Measuring system for avalanche research in Davos Scientists at the Federal Institute for Snow and Avalanche Research in Davos (Switzerland) wanted to record the course of avalanches as they race downhill and to measure the forces exerted when they impact with obstacles. For this purpose, a test zone measuring more than 2.5 km was established in the Valléee de la Sionne in collaboration with Mettler & Fuchs. Various structures were erected in the middle of the avalanche path, including various masts, a steel wall and a gallery roof. These structures were equipped with Kistler sensors for measuring forces and velocities. The object is to use the data from field tests to check the validity of the theoretical guidelines and to calibrate and improve the computer programs used to calculate dry snow and dense flow avalanches. Scientists from France, Spain and Austria are already using this spectacular system for their own experiments. Study into muscular atrophy Patients who are bedridden for a lengthy period suffer considerable muscular atrophy. This problem is even more pronounced in astronauts who spend a long time in weightless conditions. The Zurich Polytechnic laboratory for biomechanics directed by Professor Stüssi has investigated these conditions in a large project. The Torque Velocity Dynamometer (TVD) was developed in a very short time in collaboration with the European Space Agency (ESA), Kistler and other partners. This compact high-performance instrument for training and measuring enabled astronauts to carry out a selective analysis of the atrophy of various muscles in weightless conditions. Once again, Kistler sensors displayed their enormous loading capacity in the most confined space. The results of the study should help, on the one hand, to reduce muscular atrophy in bedridden patients and, on the other hand, to allow longer manned space flights. Measuring vibration forces The main drive system of satellite launch vehicles produces heavy vibration during the launch phase. To ensure that the satellite remains undamaged while being transported into space, pre-flight simulations are carried out on the satellite or its individual components. Vibration tests are of particular importance. The components are tested for their suitability on a vibrating table. If a component vibrates at its natural frequency, there is a danger that it will be destroyed. The standard procedure today is to monitor and check vibration forces with accelerometer in combination with a 3-component force-measuring device, in order to measure the reaction forces on the component simultaneously. To this end, a large number of 3-component force-sensors are mounted on the test object or special dynamometers are employed as well. If the component vibrates at its natural frequency during the vibration test, vibration forces increase rapidly. These forces are limited by damping (notching) individual frequency ranges of the stimulation. This procedure is generally referred to as force limited vibration testing. Wheel bearing forces Special version for measuring forces at wheel bearings of street cars, locomotives and trams. TVD (Torque Velocity Dynamometer) TVD with foot HIF (human interface) for measuring muscular atrophy. Measurement of vibration forces Space satellites and their components are subjected to vibration testing. Vibration forces are measured with a special multi-component dynamometer. The force measurement monitors the vibration process. 33

34 Kistler Service to Order Customer satisfaction is our top priority. For this reason, we offer you a comprehensive range of services. If we can be of assistance, please do not hesitate to talk to us. 34

35 Technical advice Experienced specialists from every area of application are at the disposal of our customers. More particularly, Kistler consultancy services include the identification and definition of the measurement task, the development of the solution, the selection of the appropriate measuring system and the planning of the installation. Test equipment Kistler provides its customers with rental equipment to help solve specific application problems. Repair service In the event of the failure of a measuring system, Kistler specialists help to keep downtimes of machinery or production lines to a minimum. Calibration Kistler offers a calibration service for the periodic testing of measuring accuracy. If necessary, this service can be carried out on site. Kistler keeps a comprehensive record to show which sensors have been calibrated, as well as when and how. Kistler also has a whole series of instruments for equipping calibration laboratories. Information In order to keep customers constantly aware of the latest information, Kistler passes on its specialist knowledge at exhibitions, trade fairs, conferences, symposia and seminars. Communications in the form of data sheets, brochures, reprints, operating instructions and application descriptions are also available to our customers in printed or electronic form. Training Kistler trains its engineers thoroughly at its own training center so that their knowledge corresponds to the latest state of the art. Kistler also holds regular seminars for customers on special subject areas. Testing and rental equipment To ensure that problems are solved quickly in special cases, our customers can use Kistler testing and rental equipment. Calibration Our calibration service (SCS) is available to customers for the periodic testing of measuring accuracy. Training Regular training ensures that Kistler engineers are always familiar with the current state of technology. 35