Background Paper Section II For SPO Introducing vehicle emission standards and inspection/maintenance systems

Transcription

1 Background Paper Section II For SPO Introducing vehicle emission standards and inspection/maintenance systems II-1 Background and cur rent tr ends (related to section IV. Br ief description of the policy option) Vehicle emissions is one of the major contributors to urban air pollution. The growing vehicle population and high emission rates have lead to serious air pollution and health effect problems. This is particularly acute in the developing countries. Emission Standards: Some strategies for controlling vehicle pollution control include Emission standards, Transport Planning and demand management, Fuel quality and Inspection and maintenance. Emissions standards are laid down for Carbon monoxide (CO), Hydro-Carbons (HC), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), Smoke and Particulate Matter (PM) from vehicles. Each of these, along with secondary by-products such as ozone, when left unchecked, can cause serious adverse effects to health and the environment. Automobiles in U.S are currently meeting emission standards that require reductions of up to 98+ percent for HC, 96 percent for CO, and 95 percent for NOx compared to the uncontrolled levels of emissions in vehicles sold in the 1960s. Examples of emission standards in Europe for CO, HC & NOx is given in Table 1. CO HC NOx Table II -1: Examples of Emission standard in Europe Source: ADB, 2003 Gasoline As from a Euro 1 b 1/7/ Euro 2 b 1/1/ Euro 1/1/ Euro 1/1/ a The above dates refer to new vehicle types; dates for new vehicles are one year later b As measured on new test cycle for application in year 2000 Emission control began a dramatic, continuous rise beginning with catalyst-equipped 1975 model vehicles that had to meet much tighter emission requirements compared to previous model year vehicles. This was largely because of the use of the catalyst to control emissions which allowed manufacturers to design for efficiency. Technologies such as electronic engine controls, improved ignition systems, and improved fuel delivery systems also positively impacted fuel economy. Because the catalyst can be poisoned by lead, the use of catalytic converters helped bring about the elimination of gasoline containing lead, which was a serious health hazard. Nowadays, pollution control systems come as part of modern vehicles in the form of the catalytic converters and other equipment that moderate emissions from the tailpipe. By 2000, worldwide over 85% of new cars sold have been equipped with a catalytic converter. The Society of Automotive Engineers, USA have selected the catalytic converter, fuel injection, and electronic engine controls - all developed to reduce automotive exhaust emissions - as three of the automobile industry's ten greatest achievements over its first 100 years ( ) (USEPA, 2003). 1

2 Inspection/Maintenance: Auto inspection and maintenance (I/M) programs require the testing of motor vehicles and the repair of those that do not meet the required standards. I/M tests check whether the vehicle s key emission controls are installed as per requirement and then analyze the exhaust to verify the level of emissions. The general types of vehicle emission tests (USEPA Norms) are: Idle test: checks HCs and CO coming out of the tailpipe when the car is at idle. Steady-state test: checks HCs, NOx, CO, and CO2 coming from the tailpipe while operating the engine under load at a specified speed. Transient test: checks HCs, NOx, CO, and CO2 coming from the tailpipe while the car is being driven on a treadmill. The type of test performed depends on the model of the car and the year of purchase. For example, the steady-state test is suitable for older cars, but one cannot derive accurate results to test for higher norms as required for newer models. Time Span: India: New Delhi's experience in controlling emissions is a fine example of how the government, when it is effective, can make a real difference. New Delhi s embrace of natural gas began amid an outcry over filthy air and a growing incidence of respiratory diseases such as asthma. Since automobiles in India mostly run by diesel and gasoline, the intensive promotion of alternative fuels and adaptation of stricter emission standards could help to reduce air pollution in India. The process was driven by India's Supreme Court, which in 1998 directed that old cars, taxis and buses be replaced with vehicles using clean fuel. The shift was phased in over four years, with fines meted out to vehicle owners who failed to comply. Iran: In Tehran, as in numerous other growing cities, air pollution is a major cause of concern. A research work initiated by the World Bank and the country s Ministry of Environmental Affairs showed alarming levels of pollutants in Approximately 70% of this was from vehicles. This has lead to an action plan aimed at reducing the levels to within acceptable limits over the next years. The comprehensive plan to reduce air pollution will focus on 7 major areas: new vehicles, old vehicles, public transportation, fuel, inspection and maintenance, traffic management and training. The effects of the plan are still under study (World Bank, 2000). II-2 Approach (related to section V. Background) Figure 1 shows the emission standards for two-wheelers around the world. With more stringent national emission standards in India and Taiwan, vehicle manufacturers have made engine design changes that have reduced the level of emissions and increased fuel economy. Scavenging losses have been reduced steadily, and in 2000 catalytic converters were installed for the first time. The emission standards shown in Figure 1 came into force in 2000, with the exception of Taiwan, where it came into effect in 1998 (World Bank, 2000). 2

3 Vehicle I&M in Sri Lanka: The present vehicle I&M system in Sri Lanka focuses on the physical fitness of the vehicle including smoke levels. EURO-I emission standard is applied for all vehicles procured by the government since Vehicle inspection is carried out at three levels: First: Second: Third: at the original registration for all vehicles, The first inspection is carried out by the Commissionaire of Motor Transport using necessary equipment. is the annual inspection for commercial vehicles (Buses and Trucks). The registered private sector garages normally carry out these annual inspections. is on roadside, normally conducted by the Police. Figure 1: Emission standard for two-wheeler s a comparison Source: World Bank, The Motor Traffic Act of Sri Lanka has included regulation to fine vehicles that have high smoke levels. This does not include any standard of pollutants. The Sri Lankan Police would fine these vehicles that are observed to have visible smoke levels. Evidently, the present vehicle inspection system (all three levels) is inadequate as it does not include any emission levels for the vehicles. The vehicle inspection system in Sri Lanka, in its present form is more aimed for road safety than to meet the environment issues. The government s policy of allowing the import of second-hand reconditioned vehicles has also aggravated the proliferation of poorly maintained vehicles. Many of these vehicles are more than three years old, have done considerable mileage, and have high emission rates. Further, the private sector bus fleet consists of 78% of re-conditioned and more than 5 year old buses. Hence, the introduction of proper vehicular I&M program together with the establishment of strict emission norms is a vital requirement to reduce the load of air pollutants being released into the atmosphere (Global Initiative on Transport Emissions, 2001). 3

4 Control of vehicular pollution: The various measures taken by the Indian government to mitigate vehicular emissions are: Stringent emission norms: The emission standards for new vehicles had been first introduced in Stringent emission norms along with fuel quality specifications were further laid down in 1996 and Euro-I norms are adopted as standard from April 1, 2000 and Euro-II norms are to be adopted from April 1, Cleaner fuel quality: To conform to the stringent emission norms, it is imperative that both fuel specification and engine technologies are looked at in unision. Fuel quality specifications have been laid down by the BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) for gasoline and diesel. Given the increased usage of diesel in India, it becomes necessary to reduce its sulphur content. For gasoline, lead has been phased out in the entire country since February 1, Similarly the benzene content is to be reduced to 1% starting from October 1, Inspection and maintenance (I&M): The first and most important step towards emission control for the large in-use fleet of vehicles is the formulation of an inspection and maintenance system. It is possible to reduce up to 30-40% pollution loads generated by vehicles through proper periodical inspections and maintenance of vehicles. I&M measures for in-use vehicles are an essential complement to emission standards for new vehicles. In India, the existing mechanism of I&M is inadequate. Thus, there is a great need to establish effective periodic I&M programs. Other str ingent measur es: Two stroke engines cannot utilize an oil sump/pressurized lubrication system as the sump is used as a compression chamber during part of the two stroke cycle. Therefore, to provide adequate cylinder wall lubrication, a small percentage of specially formulated/low combustion residue oil (2T) is mixed with petrol to do the needful. In order to prevent the use of 2T oil in excess of the required quantity, premixed 2T oil dispensers are to be installed in all gasoline stations. Other measures include bans on commercial vehicles more than 15 years old, a ban on the registration of new three-wheelers with front engine, replacement of all pre-1990 three-wheelers and taxis with new vehicles using clean fuels such as CNG; and the removal of 8 year old buses from the roads unless they use CNG or some other clean fuel. (Wall Street Journal, 2004) II-3. Fuel economy standards and GHG emission standards (Related to section section X, Applicability and limitation) To address the issue of air pollution, energy consumption, and global warming in a holistic manner, combining with fuel economy standards or green house gas emission (GHG) standards can provide an effective measure. Automobile fuel economy standards have proven to be one of the most effective tools in controlling oil demand and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the transportation sector in many regions and countries around the world. 4

5 Figures 2 and 3 show comparisons of fuel economy and GHG emission standards by CAFEconverted to mpg and NEDC-converted to g CO 2 /km procedures. United States and Canada have the lowest standards in terms of fleet-average fuel economy rating while European Union and Japan have the most stringent standards. United States and Canada shows the highest CO2 emission levels and that the EU and Japan shows the lowest GHG emission levels according the EU testing procedures. New Chinese standards are stringent than other countries such as Australia, Canada, and the United States, but they are less stringent than those in the European Union and Japan. These comparisons do not address the implications of changing the vehicle size or weight composition of the current fleet. If the California GHG standards go into effect, they would narrow the gap between U.S. and EU standards, but the California standards would still be less stringent than the EU standards. Figure 2: Compar ison of fuel economy and GHG emission standards (An and Sauer, 2004). Note: (1) dotted lines denote proposed standards, (2) MPG = miles per gallon Figure 3: Compar ison of fuel economy and GHG emission standards (An and Sauer, 2004). Note: dotted lines denote proposed standards Table 2 shows the motor vehicle fuel economy or GHG emission standards in selected regions/countries. China and South Korea have recently adopted new vehicle fuel efficiency standards, while Taiwan has had its own fuel economy standards for more than a decade. The European Union negotiated voluntary vehicle carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emission rate targets as a 5

6 means to control GHG emissions. In the European Union, the automobile industry has signed a voluntary agreement with the government to reach an overall fleet CO 2 emission level of 140 g CO 2 /km by Mexico and Iceland do not currently have some form of fuel economy or GHG emission program for vehicles among the 30 Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries. The United States uses Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards, which require each manufacturer to meet specified fleet average fuel economy levels for cars and light trucks. Canada's automobile industry has voluntarily agreed to follow the US CAFE standards in Canada; however, the government has announced its intention to decrease fuel consumption of passenger vehicles by 25 percent by The state of California has also recently proposed its own GHG emission standards for vehicles that require each manufacturer to meet fleet average GHG targets for two separate categories of light-duty vehicles. In Australia, the automobile industry has signed a similar voluntary agreement with the government, committing to reach an overall fleet average fuel consumption of 6.8 liters per km by Approaches in which the entire industry must meet one target contrasts with the U.S. CAFÉ policy, which requires each company to meet standards for cars and light trucks. In Japan, as in China, fuel economy standards are based on a weight classification system where vehicles must comply with the standard for their weight class. Similarly, the fuel economy standards in Taiwan and South Korea are based on an engine size classification system. China, however, is following the EU's testing procedures, and Taiwan and South Korea are following testing methods similar to U.S. CAFE procedures. Japan maintains its own testing procedures. U.S.CAFE Mandatory Table II-2: Fuel economy and GHG standards for vehicles around the world Source: An and Sauer, 2004 Country/ region Type Measure Str ucture Test method a Implementation United states Fuel mpg Cars and light U.S.CAFE Mandatory trucks European CO 2 g/km Overall light-duty EU NEDC Voluntary union fleet Japan Fuel Km/L Weight- based Japan Mandatory China Fuel L/100-km Weight-based EU NEDC Mandatory California GHG g/mile Car/ LDT 1and LDT2 b Canada Fuel L/100-km Cars and Light U.S.CAFE Voluntary trucks Australia Fuel L/100-km Overall light-duty EU NEDC Voluntary fleet Taiwan, South Korea Fuel Km/L Engine size U.S.CAFE Mandatory a Test methods include U.S. Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE), New European Drive Cycle (NEDC), and Japan Cycle. b LDT1 and LDT2 are categories of light-duty trucks. 6

7 References ADB Vehicle Emissions Standards and Inspection and Maintenance, [ sp] An. F and Sauer. A, comparison of passenger vehicle fuel economy and greenhouse gas emission standards around the world [ rds%5f010605%5f110719%2epdf] Bangkok Post. 17 Dec [ United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Green Vehicle guide. [ Pollution Control Department (PCD), Thailand State of Environment: The Decade of 1990s, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Bangkok. DevNews Media Centre Project Cycles out Biggest Polluters, Bangkok clinic encourages motorcycle repairs and upgrades, [ EXTERNAL/NEWS/0,,contentMDK: ~menuPK:34459~pagePK: ~piP K: ~theSitePK:4607,00.html] Cleaner Air Initiatives. 2004, [ html] Manufacturers of Emission Controls Association. [ Name/filemanager/pid/229/imfact.PDF?actionreq=actionFileDownload&fileItem=218] The Wall Street Journal. Nov 22, India Sets Pace on Cleaner Air World Bank, 2000, Air Quality - Improving Urban Air Quality in South Asia by Reducing Emissions from Two-Stroke Engine Vehicles. Global Initiative on Transport Emissions, 2001 Asia Workshop on I&M Policy. [ un.org/esa/gite/iandm/jayaweerapaper.pdf] GOI 2001, Ministry of Environment & Forests, Report 2001, Government of India [ soer/2001/ind_air.pdf] Asia Workshop on I & M Policy, 2001 [ ds%5f010605%5f110719%2epdf 7