Policy Guidelines for Reducing Vehicle Emissions in Asia. Vehicle Emissions Standards and Inspection and Maintenance

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2 Policy Guidelines for Reducing Vehicle Emissions in Asia Vehicle Emissions Standards and Inspection and Maintenance

3 Asian Development Bank 2003 All rights reserved This publication was prepared by staff of the Asian Development Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in it do not necessarily represent the views of ADB or those of its member governments. ADB does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for any consequences of their use. The term country does not imply any judgment by ADB as to the legal or other status of any territorial entity. Publication Stock No Published by the Asian Development Bank P.O. Box 789, 0980 Manila, Philippines

4 Contents Preface Abbreviations Executive summary iv vi vii Introduction 1 Integrated strategies to reduce vehicle emissions 3 Vehicle emissions standards 7 Inspection and maintenance (I/M) 13 I/M structure 14 Institutional and administrative set-up 16 Technical issues 18 Public participation in I/M 24 Quality assurance audit 25 Roadside testing programs 26 The M in I/M 28 Alternative approaches to reduce in-use vehicle emissions 31 Regional cooperation 33 Appendix on recent European Union emissions standards 35 Notes 39

5 iv POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA Preface Concerned with the increasing levels of air pollution caused by motor vehicles in Asia s major cities, Asian Development Bank initiated a project on Reducing Vehicle Emissions in November The project collected and disseminated information on policies to reduce vehicle emissions through the Reducing Vehicle Emissions in Asia website ( an information portal on international, regional, national and city level experiences in reducing vehicle emissions. Through five workshops, the project provided a venue for the sharing of experiences between countries in Asia and the introduction of best practices on reducing vehicle emissions from other regions Fuel Quality, Alternative Fuels, and Advanced Vehicle Technology held on 2 4 May 2001 in New Delhi, India, Reducing Emissions from Two and Three Wheelers held on 5 7 September 2001 in Hanoi, Viet Nam, Strengthening Vehicle Inspection and Maintenance held on 7 9 November 2001 in Chongqing, PRC, Transport Planning, Demand Management and Air Quality held on February 2002 in Manila, Philippines, and Concluding Workshop on Reducing Vehicle Emissions held on 28 February 1 March 2002 in Manila, Philippines. The project supported the formation of multi-sector action plan groups and the formulation of three action plans Integrated Vehicle Emission Reduction Strategy for Greater Jakarta, Indonesia, Strengthening Vehicle Inspection and Maintenance in Chongqing, People s Republic of China, and Integrated Action Plan to Reduce Vehicle Emissions in Viet Nam. It provided

6 VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE v resources for two studies Study on Air Quality in Jakarta, Indonesia: Future Trends, Health Impacts, Economic Value and Policy Options and Pricing and Infrastructure Costing for Supply and Distribution of CNG and ULSD to the Transport Sector in Mumbai, India. The Policy Guidelines for Reducing Vehicle Emissions in Asia consist of five main books with these titles: Reducing Vehicle Emissions in Asia Cleaner Fuels Cleaner Two and Three Wheelers Vehicle Emissions Standards and Inspection and Maintenance Transport Planning and Traffic Management for Better Air Quality These books come with a common appendix on the Adverse Health and Environmental Effects from Vehicle Emissions printed as a separate book to clearly demonstrate the health and environmental impacts caused by air pollution from vehicles. These policy guidelines, which are based on the five workshops organized by the project, provide an in-depth analysis of the different components of an integrated strategy to reduce pollution from vehicles in Asia. Policymakers in Asia will have to combine the general principles outlined in the policy guidelines with their knowledge of the local situation in their countries and cities to arrive at effective strategies. The Reducing Vehicle Emissions project produced its final report in a CD-ROM containing the workshop presentations, action plans, studies, and policy guidelines.

7 vi POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA Abbreviations ADB Asian Development Bank CO carbon monoxide ECE Economic Commission for Europe EU European Union HC hydrocarbon I/M inspection and maintenance NGO nongovernment organization NO x nitrogen oxides OBD onboard diagnostic system PM particulate matter RSD remote sensing device UN United Nations US United States US EPA US Environmental Protection Agency WP29 Working Party 29

8 VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE vii Executive summary Air quality problems in Asian cities are increasingly caused or exacerbated by emissions from the growing number of motor vehicles. Appropriate vehicle emissions standards for new and in-use vehicles and a well-designed and operated inspection and maintenance (I/M) N program are important elements of an overall strategy to reduce vehicle emissions and closely linked to fuel quality ew vehicle standards must be air pollution. requirements, as more advanced As part of its Regional Technical Assistance (RETA) project to reduce motor vehicle technologies are precluded or air pollution, Asian Development Bank diminished by certain fuel parameters (ADB) organized a workshop on vehicle such as lead in gasoline or high sulfur emissions standards and strengthening vehicle inspection and maintenance pro- levels in gasoline or diesel grams. The workshop was held in Chongqing, People s Republic of China on 7 9 November The Policy Guidelines on Vehicle Emissions Standards and Inspection and Maintenance summarize the most important policy conclusions and recommendations from the workshop. In setting new vehicle standards, policymakers should be guided by the following principles: New vehicle standards must be closely linked to fuel quality requirements, as more advanced technologies are precluded or diminished by certain fuel parameters such as lead in gasoline or high sulfur levels in gasoline or diesel. If the air pollution problem is serious, as it is in most major Asian cities, policymakers should strongly consider jumping forward to the most stringent standards possible after examining what quality of fuel could be made available.

9 viii POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA Short- and long-term plans for adopting vehicle and fuel standards should be developed so that the vehicle and fuels industries have sufficient time to adapt. The long-term goal for each country in Asia should be parity with European new vehicle and fuel standards by 2010 at the latest. Vehicles complying with 2010 United States standards should also be acceptable. An active dialogue between the motor and oil industries should be strongly encouraged to ensure that vehicle technologies and available fuels are closely linked. As new vehicle standards are tightened, in-use vehicle standards for new models should also be tightened and these in turn should form the basis for routine vehicle inspections. Onboard diagnostic systems (OBD) linked to new vehicle standards can also play a critical role in controlling in-use vehicle emissions.

10 VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE ix Combustion-powered vehicles naturally tend to deteriorate with age and usage, and as a result, emission levels can rise significantly. Good maintenance is required to keep emission levels at or near design levels. Such maintenance is not always performed or performed properly. Targeted I/M programs, however, can identify problem vehicles and assure their repair, thereby contributing substantially to lower emissions and improved air quality. In introducing I/M programs, certain overriding principles have emerged which should guide policymakers in developing and implementing such programs: I/M program designs should be comprehensive and must address a variety of important aspects from inception, including: There must be a well-thought out public awareness campaign that explains the public health need for the I/M program, the potential benefits and how the program works. Roadside apprehension or remote sensing programs to intercept vehicles that slip through the system or have problems in between periodic tests must be included. Different pollutants of concern should be carefully accounted for in the program design. These include particulate matter (PM), nitrogen oxides (NO x ), and smoke from diesel-fuelled vehicles; and carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbon (HC) and NO x from gasoline-fuelled vehicles. An effective enforcement mechanism to assure motorist participation in the program is essential for success. In areas where motor vehicle registration requirements are routinely and effectively enforced, registrationbased I/M enforcement systems have been very effective. Policies should be developed to prevent, root out and penalize any corruption that might creep into the system. Sufficient flexibility should be built in to allow variations in inspection frequency for vehicles with different mile-

11 x POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA age accumulation rates and with relatively durable emission control systems. The service industry must have sufficient equipment to properly Quality assurance including covert and overt auditing and quality control. repair vehicles. In addition, adequate The service industry must have sufficient equipment to properly repair ve- training must be made available so that the mechanics and technicians hicles. In addition, adequate training must be made available so that the mechanics and technicians are sufficiently are sufficiently skilled, and careful attention must be paid to assuring skilled, and careful attention must be that the service industry has sufficient paid to assuring that the service industry has sufficient lead time to properly lead time to properly equip itself equip itself. Referee stations are one mechanism for resolving disputes or difficulties with individual vehicles, as owners can get a second opinion and advice about appropriate repairs. Policymakers should carefully consider the provision of one or more referee stations in the overall program design. So as not to overwhelm the service sector or create a strong political backlash, I/M stringency should be gradually phased in. The worst 15 to 20% of the vehicle fleet should fail with the periodic tightening of the in-use standards as the service industry and maintenance practices adapt. Inspection and maintenance (I/M) structure Centralized I/M systems (sometimes called test only systems), where the inspection and maintenance functions are separated, have consistently been proven much more effective than decentralized systems, where inspection and repair are combined. It is very difficult to supervise and audit the test and repair systems and to prevent corruption and poor quality control. Policymakers must resist the adoption of programs that combine testing with repair and

12 VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE xi those that are very unlikely to achieve significant emission reductions. A careful and thorough dialogue among all relevant stakeholders including providers, regulators, enforcers/police, vehicle manufacturers, the driving public and media must be facilitated at the earliest stages of program development and subsequently maintained throughout the program implementation. While governments should regulate I/M programs, the actual implementation of I/M programs is best carried out by the private sector. Policymakers should assure that a bidding document is carefully designed and prepared in an open and transparent manner, and that all potential bidders are given a fair opportunity to compete for the final contract. Contractor selection should be based on technical merit and ability to perform the services, and the number of contractors selected should be kept small. Institutional and administrative set-up An adequate fee structure must be developed where the affected vehicle owners pay the full costs of the I/M program. This must include not only the cost of testing vehicles, but also of auditing and oversight, roadside apprehension, data management, nongovernment organization (NGO) capacity building, public awareness campaigns, and others. Such a structure must still allow private sector operators to make a sufficient profit to maintain, replace and upgrade equipment as required. Where multiple ministries (e.g., Environment, Police, Transport) or different levels of government (e.g., national and local) will be involved in the program, special care must be taken to assure a full dialogue with all appropriate ministries or departments in the early stages of program design, and full agreement with regard to specific roles and responsibilities.

13 Introduction As part of its Regional Technical Assistance (RETA) project to reduce motor vehicle air pollution, Asian Development Bank (ADB) organized and hosted a workshop focused on vehicle emissions standards and strengthening vehicle inspection and maintenance programs. The workshop was held in Chongqing, People s Republic of China on 7 9 November The Policy Guidelines on Vehicle Emissions Standards and Inspection and Maintenance summarize the most important policy conclusions and recommendations from the workshop. There are three main international approaches to standards setting: European, American and Japanese. Most countries in the Asian region have tended toward the European standards for new cars and trucks, relying largely on the UN Economic Commission for Europe (ECE). 1 With regard to motorcycles and scooters, however, the standards adopted by India, Thailand and Taipei,China are seen as the most advanced. These standards are discussed in a separate policy paper, the Policy Guidelines on Cleaner Two and Three Wheelers. 2 Emissions standards exist for carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), nitrogen oxides (NO x ), smoke and particulate matter (PM) from vehicles because each of these, along with secondary by-products such as ozone, can cause serious adverse effects to health and the environment Emissions standards exist for carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), nitrogen oxides (NO x ), smoke and particulate matter (PM) from vehicles because each of these, along with secondary by-products such as ozone, can cause serious adverse effects to health and the environment. Because of the growing vehicle population and high emission rates from many of these vehicles,

14 2 POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA serious air pollution and health effect problems have become increasingly common phenomena in modern life. 3 The adverse health effects and environmental damage can cause substantial economic impacts as well. New vehicle standards are only beneficial to the degree that they result in actual emission reductions from vehicles as they are driven in use. To minimize the deterioration of emissions controls that result from new vehicle standards and to assure that vehicles achieve the full emission reductions that they are capable of, an in-use vehicle focus must include in-use standards and ongoing testing programs.

15 VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 3 Integrated strategies to reduce vehicle emissions In developing strategies to clean up vehicles, there must be a clear understanding of the emission reductions required from all sources to achieve healthy air quality. Depending upon the air quality problem and the emissions contribution from vehicles, the degree of control required will differ by location. As illustrated in Figure 1, an initial start should be a careful assessment of air quality and the sources that contribute most to the problem or problems. Where vehicles are the major culprits, a broad-based approach will be needed to formulate and implement policies and actions Meteorology Dispersion modeling Ambient concentration Population distribution and activity Exposure assessment Figure 1 Integrated Air Quality Management Framework Emissions Exposure Issues n Technical n Economic n Institutional n Legal n Policy n Social n Stakeholder involvement Emission management n Establish objectives, identify data gaps, studies and pilots n Identify, analyze, and select management options n Develop strategies and implement action plan n Institute monitoring and enforcement Doseresponse Damage assessment Options n Fuels and vehicle technology n Traffic management n Standards n Economic incentives and disincentives

16 4 POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA Figure 2 Elements of a comprehensive vehicle pollution control strategy Inspection and maintenance aimed at reducing their pollution. The following groups of stakeholders will each have an important role in the development of appropriate policies and strategies: National government agencies and legislative bodies; Local government agencies and legislative bodies; Industry (vehicle producers, fuel producers, catalyst suppliers, maintenance industry, and others); Intermediate groups which can help advocate for and implement pollution reduction campaigns; End users. Within this group it is important to differentiate between user groups such as rickshaw drivers who depend on the affected vehicles for a living, and users who require vehicles for personal transportation; Breathers. Effective and efficient coordination mechanisms for vehicle pollution management must be established. These mechanisms should also clearly allocate responsibilities for specific functions and tasks to individual agencies and organizations. Emissions standards (technology) Clean fuels Reducing vehicle pollution will usually require a comprehensive strategy. Generally, the goal of a motor vehicle pollution control program is to reduce emissions from inuse motor vehicles to the degree reasonably necessary to achieve healthy air quality as rapidly as possible. Failing that for reasons of impracticality, the goal is to meet the practical limits of effective technological, economic, and social feasibility. A comprehensive strategy to achieve such goals includes four key components: (i) increasingly stringent emissions standards Transport planning and demand management for new vehicles, (ii) specifications for clean fuels, (iii) programs to assure proper maintenance of in-use vehicles, (iv) and transportation planning and demand management. These emission reduction goals should be achieved in the most

17 VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 5 cost-effective manner available. Figure 2 illustrates these four elements of a comprehensive vehicle pollution control strategy. Air quality problems in Asian cities are often caused or exacerbated by emissions from the growing motor vehicles fleet. Appropriate vehicle emissions standards for new and in-use vehicles and a well-designed and operated inspection and maintenance (I/M) program are important elements of an overall strategy to reduce vehicle emissions and air pollution. A well-designed and operated inspection and maintenance (I/M) program is an important element of an overall strategy to reduce vehicle emissions

18 Vehicle emissions standards The European Union (EU) adopted catalyst-forcing standards for new gasoline-fuelled cars in the early In setting new vehicles 1990s (so called Euro 1 standards) and have gradually tightened them in several steps: Euro 2 in 1996, standards, policymakers Euro 3 in 2000 and Euro 4 in Similar requirements were adopted for diesel cars and light and linkage between vehicle must appreciate the close heavy commercial vehicles. standards and the resulting In conjunction with the tightening of vehicle standards, fuel quality improvements were also man- technologies and fuels dated. In some cases, the fuels modifications are necessary to allow the introduction of vehicle technolo- assure that the appropriate requirements, and must gies that are required to meet the new vehicle emissions standards. For example, the adoption of Euro 1 fuel quality will be standards for gasoline vehicles requires the use of available when vehicle unleaded gasoline. The adoption of Euro 2 standards standards are introduced for diesel vehicles will require the use of diesel with sulfur levels lower than 500 parts per million (ppm). Further reductions in sulfur levels in both gasoline or petrol and diesel fuel are linked with Euro 3, 4 and, for diesel trucks, Euro 5 standards (see Table 1). In setting new vehicle standards, policymakers must Gasoline Diesel Standard Lead Sulfur (ppm) Sulfur (ppm) Euro 1 0 NA NA Euro Euro Euro a 50 a Euro 5 b NA NA 50 a ppm = parts per million, NA = not applicable a 10 PPM is in the late stages of Adoption by the European Union b Heavy Duty Diesel Engines Only Table 1 European Standards for Gasoline and Diesel Fuel that Coincide with Gasoline- and Diesel-Fuelled Vehicle Standards

19 8 POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA appreciate the close linkage between vehicle standards and the resulting technologies and fuels requirements, and must assure that the appropriate fuel quality will be available when the vehicle standards are introduced. In setting new vehicle standards, policymakers should be guided by the following principles: Those countries where the appropriate fuel is available can leapfrog to the Euro 2, Euro 3 or Euro 4 standards quickly. Depending upon the seriousness of the air pollution problem, policymakers should strongly consider jumping forward to the most stringent standards possible after assuring that the appropriate fuel quality would be available. The implementation of new vehicle emissions standards will be facilitated if governments announce the schedule for tightening requirements well in advance. While the majority of Asian countries have adopted Euro 1 standards to regulate new car and truck emissions, only a few countries have announced the time schedule for adopting subsequent Euro 2, 3 and 4 standards. Policymakers should formulate short-term and long-term plans for adopting vehicle and fuel standards so that the vehicle and fuels industries have sufficient time to adapt. At the present time, many countries throughout the region lag behind the European new vehicle standards and fuels requirements by approximately a decade. Table 2 shows the emissions standards for new light duty vehicles and Table 3 shows the emissions standards for new motorcycles in several countries in Asia. It is strongly recommended that each country set as a goal achieving parity with Europe, the United States (US) or Japan by 2010 at the latest. As a practical matter, the technology being built into cars and trucks to comply with the US, European and Japanese standards is very similar. Therefore, allowing compliance with any of these current requirements may be an efficient approach to standards setting for new vehicles for many countries, and should be considered by policymakers.

20 VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 9 Country European Union Bangladesh Under discussion Hong Kong, China India a India b Indonesia Malaysia Nepal Philippines PRC Singapore Sri Lanka Proposed Proposed Taipei,China Thailand Viet Nam d Viet Nam e US Tier 1 US Tier 2 for diesel c Under consideration Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3 Euro 4 Euro 5 a Entire country b Delhi and other cities; Euro 2 introduced in Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai in 2001; Euro 2 in Bangalore, Hyderabad, Kanpur, Pune and Ahmedabad in 2003; Euro 3 to be introduced in Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad and Ahmedabad in 2005 c Gasoline vehicles under consideration d For gasoline vehicles e For diesel vehicles Table 2 Emissions Standards for New Vehicles (Light Duty) The development of new vehicle standards will require active dialogue between the motor and oil industries to ensure that required fuels will be available. Policymakers should encourage such a dialogue. As new vehicle standards are tightened, in-use vehicle standards should also be tightened and these in turn should form the basis for routine vehicle inspections. New vehicle standards are intended both (i) to apply when the vehicle comes off the assembly line and (ii) to define the ve-

21 10 POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA Country Bangladesh Cambodia Hong Kong, China India Indonesia Japan Malaysia Philippines PRC Beijing Singapore Sri Lanka Taipei,China Thailand Viet Nam Effectivity current current current current proposed proposed current current 2003 proposed 2003 proposed current current current current 2004, January current 2003, July 2004, July 2004 proposed 2007 proposed 2004 proposed 2007 proposed 2007 proposed Vehicle Type 2-stroke 4-stroke 4-stroke 2-stroke 2- and 4-stroke 2- and 4-stroke 3-wheel gas 3-wheel diesel 2- and 4-stroke 2- and 4-stroke 2- and 4-stroke 2-stroke 4-stroke 2-stroke 4-stroke 2- and 4-stroke 2- and 4-stroke 2-stroke 4-stroke 2-stroke 4-stroke 2- and 4-stroke 2- and 4-stroke 2- and 4-stroke 2- and 4-stroke 2- and 4-stroke 2- and 4-stroke 2- and 4-stroke 2- and 4-stroke 2- and 4-stroke Moped 2-wheel Moped 3- and 4-wheel Moped CO 3.5 g/km 4.0% 4.0% 13.0 g/km 8.0 g/km 2.0 g/km 1.5 g/km 2.25 g/km 1.0 g/km 12.0 g/km 8.0 g/km 5.0 g/km 14.4 g/km 20.0 g/km 8.0 g/km 13.0 g/km 3.0 g/km 6.0% 4.5% 4.0% 4.0% 1.50% 1.50% 12.0 g/km 6.0 g/km 4.0% 3.0% 4.5 g/km 3.5 g/km 3.5 g/km 4.5 g/km 3.5 g/km 6.0 g/km 1.0 g/km 3.5 g/km Standards HC 3,000 ppm 2,400 ppm 3.0 g/km 4.0 g/km 5.26 g/km 2.93 g/km 4.0 g/km 4,000 ppm 1,000 ppm 3,000 ppm 300 ppm 6,000 ppm 2,000 ppm 3.0 g/km HC + NO x 2.0 g/km 0.3 g/km (NO x only) 0.1 g/km (NO x only) 2 g/km 1.5 g/km 2.0 g/km 0.85 g/km 10.0 g/km 5.0 g/km 3.0 g/km 0.1 g/km (NO x only) 0.3 g/km (NO x only) 5.0 g/km 2.0 g/km 1.8 g/km 3.0 g/km 2.0 g/km 3.0 g/km 1.2 g/km 2.4 g/km Remarks Under discussion test = ECE R40 Idle test Idle test As per IDC As per IDC; Deterioration factor = 1.2 ECE R47 ECE R47 ECE R47 97/24/EC 97/24/EC Idle test Idle test Idle test Idle test Idle test Idle test must comply with US 40 CFR Low-idling Idle warm test Idle cold test Free acceleration; 30% white smoke Evaporative emission 2g test; 15% white smoke Without evaporative emission standard;15% white smoke For 3 and 4 wheelers multiply by 2 Table 3 Emissions Standards for New Motorcycles in Asia 97/24/EC = Directive 97/24/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 June 1997 on certain components and characteristics of two or three-wheel motor vehicles, CO = carbon monoxide, ECE R40 = Economic Commission for Europe Regulation 40 - Emission of gaseous pollutants of motorcycles, ECE R47 = Economic Commission for Europe Regulation 47 - Emission of gaseous pollutants of mopeds, g/km = gram per kilometer, HC = hydrocarbons, IDC = Indian Drive Cycle, NOx = nitrogen oxides, ppm = parts per million, US 40 CFR = United States Code of Federal Regulations (US 40 CFR ) emissions standard

22 VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 11 hicle manufacturer s responsibilities over a reasonable period of actual in-use driving. For example, the current EU requirements stipulate that vehicle manufacturers are responsible for assuring that vehicles meet the inuse standards for 80,000 kilometers. In the US, they apply for 160,000 kilometers. If substantial numbers of vehicles, which are properly cared for and driven, fail to meet their new vehicle standards in use over the defined period, they can be subject to a recall program whereby defective vehicles will be repaired at the manufacturer s costs. Further, defective parts for individual vehicles are covered by a warranty. To trigger these recall or Conformity of Production programs, individual member states in the EU and the US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) carry out in-use testing programs using the same test procedures as the Type Approval or certification programs. The United States has required the introduction of onboard diagnostic (OBD) systems since 1996, and OBD systems are required in Europe with the introduction of vehicles meeting Euro 3 requirements. As new vehicle standards in Asia are tightened to these levels, OBD systems can identify failures to both vehicle owners and in-use vehicle inspectors. In the meantime, in order to assure that in-use vehicles are properly cared for, many countries adopt in-use standards based on short tests that are much less expensive to operate than typical Type Approval tests. These in-use programs are discussed in the next section.

23 Inspection and maintenance (I/M) Vehicles that are properly tuned and adjusted tend to be cleaner than out of tune vehicles. Modern vehicles equipped with advanced pollution controls are even more dependent on properly functioning components to keep pollution levels low. Minor malfunctions in the air/fuel or spark management systems can increase emissions significantly. Major malfunctions can cause emissions to skyrocket. A relatively small number of vehicles with serious malfunctions frequently cause the majority of vehiclerelated pollution problems. Unfortunately, it is rarely obvious which vehicles fall into this category as the emissions themselves may be unnoticeable and emission control malfunctions do not necessarily affect vehicle driveability. Effective vehicle inspection programs based on periodic short tests can identify these problem cars and, by requiring a re-test after necessary maintenance, assure their repair. The combination of inspection and remedial maintenance has become known as I/M. Targeted I/M programs can contribute substantially to reduce pollution caused by such vehicles. In introducing I/M programs, however, certain overriding principles have emerged: As vehicle technology advances, more sophisticated test procedures are necessary. This includes loaded mode tests that use a dynamometer to simulate the work an engine must perform in actual driving. Tightening of new vehicle emissions standards should be followed by a concomitant tightening of in-use standards for those newer model vehicles. Considering that the average vehicle life in some Asian countries is much longer than in Europe, the US or elsewhere in the developed world, this will lead to a growing diversification of in-use stan-

24 14 POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA If the standards set are too stringent when an I/M program is initiated, most vehicles could fail, thus, placing a great strain on the service sector as well as being politically unacceptable dards in Asian countries. Policymakers must assure that appropriate in-use vehicle standards are set which account for the technology advances resulting from tighter new vehicle standards. In addition, policymakers must assure that the in-use standards applied in I/M programs appropriately reflect the differences between each group. In addition, policymakers must assess whether the I/M test procedures also need to differ for vehicles with different pollution control technologies. Further, the pollutants of concern will differ between diesel-fuelled vehicles (PM, smoke and NO x ) and gasoline-fuelled vehicles (CO, HC and NO x ). Policymakers should account for these differences when designing I/M programs. If the standards set are too stringent when an I/M program is initiated, most vehicles could fail, thus, placing a great strain on the service sector as well as being politically unacceptable. Policymakers should adopt initial standards that fail only the worst 15 to 20% of the vehicle fleet and then, gradually tighten them as the service industry and maintenance practices improve. I/M structure The first decision usually made regarding an I/M system is the fundamental structure of the program, and this is often the key determinant of the overall success or failure of the effort. Several main principles should guide policymakers in designing an I/M program structure:

25 VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 15 Experience from outside Asia indicates that centralized I/M systems (sometimes called test only systems) where inspection and maintenance functions are separated have produced the best results. Decentralized systems, where inspections and repairs are combined, are very difficult to supervise and audit and are subject to corruption and poor quality control. Policymakers should be especially cognizant of the international experience in this regard and resist the adoption of programs that combine testing with repair, as these are very unlikely to achieve significant emission reductions. Policymakers should assure that there is a careful and thorough dialogue among all relevant stakeholders when defining the I/M system structure. These groups include providers, regulators, Experience from across the enforcers/police, vehicle manufacturers, the driving public and media. world has demonstrated Experience from across the world has that while governments should demonstrated that while governments regulate I/M programs, their should regulate I/M programs, their actual implementation is best carried out actual implementation is best by the private sector. Policymakers carried out by the private sector should assure that a carefully-designed bidding document is prepared in an open and transparent manner, and that all potential bidders are given a fair opportunity to compete for the final contract. Governments contemplating the establishment of an I/M system or expanding the scope of an existing one need to consider (i) whether they have adopted the appropriate in-use vehicle emissions standards and test procedures on which to base I/M, (ii) whether the institutional capacity and willingness to enforce an I/M program exists, and (iii) whether the repair sector is sufficiently trained to carry out repairs on vehicles which fail the tests. If any of these aspects are found to be deficient, policymakers should take all appropriate steps to rectify the situation.

26 16 POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA Vehicle manufacturers can play an important role in providing training to the repair sector, and policymakers should take steps to involve them in the development of an overall strategy to upgrade the repair industry. Overall success of an I/M program depends in part on assuring that all vehicles intended to participate in the program are actually inspected, and repaired if necessary Institutional and administrative set-up The single most important determining factor for I/M success is support by senior decision-makers and the institutional capacity to manage and regulate the system. This is often weak and as a consequence a weak regulatory framework results. Inadequate funding and weak enforcement frequently lead to a system that is plagued by corruption and poor quality control. Policymakers should adhere to the following principles, therefore, in setting up the I/M system: Policymakers must ensure that an adequate fee structure is developed where the affected vehicle owners pay the full costs of the I/M program, including the costs of auditing and overseeing the program by government or private auditors. This follows the polluter pays principle. Within countries that have a combined roadworthiness and emission-testing program, the responsibility is often shared between the Departments of Transport and Environment. Very often, there is poor coordination between these two departments, which hampers efforts to strengthen I/M. Policymakers should assure that there is full dialogue with all appropriate ministries or departments at the early stages of program design, and full agreement regarding specific roles and responsibilities. In countries where responsibility is shared between national and local government organizations, coordination problems frequently occur in the implementation of existing I/M programs as well as in strengthening the I/M system. Again, policymakers should assure that there is full dialogue with all appropriate ministries or departments at the early stages of program design, together

27 VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 17 with full agreement regarding specific roles and responsibilities. Any I/M system needs to account for new vehicle emissions standards, which in most cases are issued by national governments. Policymakers should strive to develop I/M systems within a national framework. Overall success of an I/M program depends in part on assuring that all vehicles intended to participate in the program are actually inspected, and repaired if necessary. Experience from both outside and inside Asia has demonstrated that the most effective I/M programs are those that are linked to vehicle registration, i.e., failure to present proof of passing an inspection leads to denial of registration. Policymakers should therefore carefully develop and implement a registration-based enforcement system for all affected vehicles. A well-functioning I/M system will include a data management system that ensures that all test data are transmitted on a regular basis to a central database. This will be easier if I/M stations are linked by computers that automatically transmit information on a real time basis. This is much easier in a centralized system with a limited number of contractors than a decentralized system with a large number of independent workshops. Policymakers should assure that a good data management system is included when designing the program, and that sufficient funds are included in the fee structure to manage and operate the system. Experience from both outside and inside Asia has demonstrated that the most effective I/M programs are those that are linked to vehicle registration, i.e., failure to present proof of passing an inspection leads to denial of registration

28 18 POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA Policymakers should also be aware that increased reliance on data management centers will make it necessary to strengthen the quality of the overall database on vehicles in actual use. Table 4 Characteristics of Inspection and Maintenance (I/M) Test Procedures Technical issues Many I/M systems, which are often government-operated, lack committed resources. They cannot assure that hardware is maintained and upgraded as needed. Funds for calibration of equipment are frequently inadequate, and limited attention is often paid to ensure the adequate training of inspection staff. One remedy that policymakers should carefully consider is the privatization of such programs and the adoption of a fee structure that provides adequate funds. The shift towards more stringent emissions standards for new vehicles should be followed by tighter in-use standards for newer models. The test procedure should be shifted to a loaded test rather than the idle test when new vehicle standards result in the introduction of catalyst technology on vehicles. This will require new, additional test equipment including chassis dynamometers. The costs of such equipment will make it difficult for small-scale workshops to take part in I/M program implementation, yet another reason for considering a centralized system. Table 4 is a comparative table of test procedures. Tables 5, 6, and 7 are in-use emissions standards for different types of vehicles. Test CO HC NO x PM Smoke Cost Time a Idle X X Very Low Fast 2 Stage Idle X X Very Low Fast Steady State Loaded (ASM) X X X Low Medium VMass X X X Low Medium Transient Loaded (IM240) X X X High Medium Free Acceleration X Medium Fast Full Load X X X X X High Medium CO = carbon monoxide, HC = hydrocarbon, NO x = nitrogen oxides, PM = particulate matter, X = pollutant being measured a Time it takes for one test on one vehicle

29 VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 19 Table 5 Emissions Standards for In-Use Gasoline Vehicles Country Effectivity CO (%) HC (ppm) Test Bangladesh 24.0 g/km 2.0 g/km Dynamic Cambodia Current ,000 Idle Hong Kong, China Current 0.5 Low idle or in accordance with manufacturers specifications 0.3 High idle, λ = 1± 0.03 or in accordance with manufacturers specifications India Current 3.0 Idle Indonesia Current Idle Malaysia Current Idle Nepal Current Pakistan Current 6.0 Idle Philippines Before 1997 January Idle Philippines Idle Philippines Low idle At high idle CO limit = 0.3 (λ = 1± 0.03) or in accordance with manufacturers specifications PRC a Current Idle PRC b Current Idle Singapore Current Idle Sri Lanka Before Low idling Sri Lanka After Low idling Thailand Before 1993 November Idle Thailand After 1993 November Idle Viet Nam c Proposed 2002 December 6.0 d 1500 Idle Viet Nam c Proposed e 1200 Idle Viet Nam c Proposed f 600 Idle CO = carbon monoxide, g/km = gram per kilometer, HC = hydrocarbons, ppm = parts per million a For light duty vehicles b For heavy duty vehicles c Applicable in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh, Hai Phong, Da Nang d Rest of country CO limit = 6.5% e Rest of country CO limit = 6.0% f Rest of country CO limit = 4.5%

30 20 POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA Table 6 Emissions Standards for In-Use Diesel Vehicles Country Effectivity Smoke (HSU) Test Bangladesh 65 Cambodia Current 50 Hong Kong, China Current 60 Free acceleration 50 Loaded lug down test on a chassis dynamometer a India Current 65 Free acceleration Indonesia Current 50 Free acceleration Malaysia Current 50 Nepal b Current 65 Pakistan Current 40 Free acceleration Philippines Current 2.5 m -1 Free acceleration c Philippines m -1 Free acceleration d PRC Current 4.5 Rb Free acceleration Singapore Current 50 Sri Lanka Current 65 Idle Sri Lanka Current 75 Free acceleration Thailand Current 45 Free acceleration Thailand Current 35% Loaded Thailand Current 50 Filter test free acceleration Thailand Current 40% Filter test loaded Viet Nam e Current 72 Idle Viet Nam f Current 85 Idle Viet Nam g Idle HSU = Hartridge smoke unit, m -1 = light absorption coefficient, Rb = Filter or Bosch smoke meter unit a For vehicles apprehended under the Smoky Vehicle Control Program b For vehicles manufactured in 1995 and beyond c For naturally aspirated engines, limit is 2.5 m -1 for turbo-charged engine and 4.5 m -1 for a 1,000 m increase in elevation d For naturally aspirated engines, limit is 2.2 m -1 for turbo-charged engine and 3.2 m -1 for a 1,000 m increase in elevation e Applicable in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh, Hai Phong, Da Nang f Rest of country g Limit is 50 HSU for newly registered vehicles starting 2005

31 VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 21 Table 7 Emissions Standards for In-use Motorcycles in Asia Standards Country Effectivity Vehicle Type CO (%) HC (ppm) Remarks Bangladesh Cambodia India Indonesia Philippines PRC Beijing Sri Lanka Taipei,China Thailand Viet Nam current current current current current before 2003 July before 2003 July after 2003 July after 2003 July before 2001 January after 2001 January before 2001 January after 2001 January current current 2004 January current current current 2- and 4-stroke 2- and 4-stroke 2-stroke 4-stroke 2- and 4-stroke 2-stroke 4-stroke 2-stroke 4-stroke 2-stroke 2-stroke 4-stroke 4-stroke 2- and 4-stroke 2- and 4-stroke 2- and 4-stroke 2- and 4-stroke 2-stroke 4-stroke 24 g/km g/km 10,000 9,000 3,000 2,400 8,000 2,200 4,500 1,200 8,000 3,500 2, ,000 2,000 10,000 10,000 1,500 Under discussion Idle test Idle test Idle test Idle test Idle test Idle test Idle test Idle test Idle test Idle test Idle Test Idle Test Idle Test Low-idling Idle warm test Idle cold test Idle test for CO and HC; 30% white smoke limit; free acceleration for white smoke Idle test Idle test CO = carbon monoxide, HC = hydrocarbons, g/km = gram per kilometer, ppm = parts per million

32 22 POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA Since most countries in Asia have adopted EU standards for new vehicles, it may be more appropriate to adopt a European short test rather than the US derived IM240 test. An example of such a test is shown in Figure 3 below. Figure 3 Sample of European Short Test Velocity (km/h) Time (sec) A potentially serious problem, especially where most vehicles are still equipped with simple carburettor technology, is the Clean for a Day syndrome in which vehicles are tuned to pass the test and then immediately readjusted to a high pollution condition afterwards. To address this problem, policymakers must give attention to complementary in-use test programs such as roadside screening or remote sensing (see Figure 4 for a typical remote sensing set-up). Figure 4 Typical Remote Sensing Set-up

33 VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 23 There are certain countries or cities leading the way in Asia with respect to testing of particular vehicle types. These include the Smoky Vehicle Control Program in Hong Kong, China which involves dynamometer smoke testing for light and heavy duty diesel vehicles. Policymakers should consult with technical leaders in the region as they develop their programs. Typical set-up of a chassis dynamometer testing center in Hong Kong, China Emphasis in I/M should be on the identification of gross polluters within each technology category. Remote sensing devices (RSD) are evolving and may play an important role in identifying gross polluting vehicles, especially where most vehicles are low tech. It might be less suitable for more advanced technologies unless further improvements are made. Currently, most RSD experience has been with clean screening as a means to reduce the testing load, although dirty screening programs are also in effect or being developed.

34 24 POLICY GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING VEHICLE EMISSIONS IN ASIA In designing programs, policymakers should assure that frequency of inspections varies for vehicles with different mileage accumulation rates and with more or less durable emission control systems. For example, taxicabs typically accumulate far more mileage in a given period than do private cars and therefore, they should be subject to more frequent inspections. Public participation in I/M Public perceptions regarding the effectiveness and transparency of I/M systems will heavily influence the willingness of the general public to cooperate with government-imposed I/M regimes. To ensure a positive public perception, it is important that society understands the public health need for the program and believes that it is fair and effective. Experience indicates that, on average, the driving public is more interested in vehicle roadworthiness and vehicle safety than emission levels. This is due to the more apparent linkage between vehicle roadworthiness and the safety of drivers, passengers and pedestrians. To ensure the required public acceptance of I/M programs and their willing participation in vehicle I/M, programs will have to considerably strengthen their public awareness-raising campaigns. Particular emphasis should be placed on the health benefits that can result from a successful program. Environmental NGOs need capacity building and often have limited understanding of vehicle emissions standards and I/M issues. This limits the effectiveness of these groups in pressuring government officials to assure that good quality I/M programs are put in place. Considering the above, policymakers should develop a strong and ongoing public awareness component that routinely informs the public of the need for an I/M program, its achieved benefits and overall performance. A special focus of the public awareness campaign should be on environmental NGOs that need to increase their under-

35 VEHICLE EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 25 standing of I/M programs. Again, policymakers must assure that sufficient funds for this effort are included in an inspection fee structure. Policymakers must develop performance standards for I/M stations that will guarantee fast and reliable testing for the public; poorly performing stations must be penalized as well. Performance measures could include typical waiting times as well as pass/fail rates. Policymakers also need to think about useful methods to achieve better public cooperation in I/M programs. Consideration should be given to tax incentives, lower registration fees for cleaner vehicles, or linkage to vehicle insurance rates. Quality assurance audit I/M programs have often been associated with fraud and corruption. Failure to address these issues will seriously compromise the credibility and effectiveness of I/M systems. Governments in Asia are experiencing difficulties in establishing effective quality assurance and audit mechanisms in their I/M systems. Yet, a well-functioning audit and quality assurance system is crucial for the acceptance and success of any I/M system. Audits can be implemented by a special unit in the responsible government department or can be outsourced to a private sector firm, provided it is not operating a part of the I/M system. These private sector providers should also not provide training or consultancy services to the I/M provider. Policymakers must assure that such auditing functions are fully built into the overall program design and accounted for in the fee structure. Further, in designing such auditing systems, a general rule is that the less reliance there is on human judgment or manual actions, the more reliable the result. Policymakers should also assure that test fees are set at a reasonable level to allow private sector operators to make