Power Plant Equipment Operation and Maintenance Guide

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1 Power Plant Equipment Operation and Maintenance Guide Maximizing Efficiency and Profitability Philip Kiameh, M.A.Sc, B.Eng., D.Eng., P.Eng. Mc Graw Hill New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto

Contents Preface Acknowledgments xxv xxix 1 Gas Turbine Applications in Power Stations, Gas Turbine Protective Systems, and Tests 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Working Cycle 4 1.2.1 Starting 4 1.2.2 Shutdown 6 1.

2 Contents Preface Acknowledgments xxv xxix 1 Gas Turbine Applications in Power Stations, Gas Turbine Protective Systems, and Tests Introduction Working Cycle Starting Shutdown Protection Black Start Routine Tests Bibliography 9 2 Steam Turbine Selection for Combined-Cycle Power Systems Abstract Introduction Steam Turbine Application to Steam and Gas Plants Steam and Gas Plants Structure Steam Turbine Exhaust Size Selection Non-Exhaust Cycle-Steam Conditions Reheat Cycle Steam Condition Steam Turbine Product Structure Performance Casing Arrangements Cogeneration Applications Bibliography 29 3 Steam Turbine Maintenance Life Cycle Operating Cost of a Steam Turbine Steam Turbine Reliability Boroscopic Inspection Major Cause of Steam Turbine Repair and Maintenance Maintenance Activities Advanced Design Features for Steam Turbines Bibliography 39 4 Frequently Asked Questions About Turbine-Generator Balancing, Vibration Analysis, and Maintenance Balancing Vibration Analysis Cam Bell Diagram Turbine-Generator Maintenance 42 IX

ents 5 Features Enhancing the Reliability and Maintainability of Steam Turbines 45 5.1 Steam Turbine Design Philosophy 45 5.2 Measures of Reliability, Availability, and Maintainability 46 5.

3 ents 5 Features Enhancing the Reliability and Maintainability of Steam Turbines Steam Turbine Design Philosophy Measures of Reliability, Availability, and Maintainability Design Attributes Enhancing Reliability Overall Mechanical Design Approach Modern Steam Turbine Design Features Design Attributes Enhancing Maintainability Maintainability Features Maintenance Recommendations Cost/Benefit Analysis of High Reliability, Availability, and Maintenance Performance Reliability, Availability, and Maintainability Value Calculation Conclusion Bibliography 61 6 Steam Generators Introduction The Fire-Tube Boiler The Water-Tube Boiler The Straight-Tube Boiler The Bent-Tube Boiler The Water-Tube Boiler: Recent Developments The Boiler Walls The Radiant Boiler Water Circulation The Steam Drum Superheaters and Reheaters Convection Superheater Radiant Superheater Once-Through Boilers Economizers Air Preheaters Fans Fan Control The Stack Steam Generator Control Feedwater and Drum-Level Control Steam-Pressure Control Steam-Temperature Control Bibliography 91 7 Boilers (Steam Generators), Heat Exchangers, and Condensers Heat Transfer Steady-State Conduction 93

Contents XJ 7.2 Thermal Conductivities 95 7.2.1 Conduction Through Cylindrical Walls 95 7.3 Combination Heat-Transfer Effects 96 7.4 Convection Heat-Transfer Coefficients 97 7.4.1 Turbulent Forced-Convection Flow Inside Long Circular Tubes 98 7.

4 Contents XJ 7.2 Thermal Conductivities Conduction Through Cylindrical Walls Combination Heat-Transfer Effects Convection Heat-Transfer Coefficients Turbulent Forced-Convection Flow Inside Long Circular Tubes Streamlined Forced-Convection Flow Inside Tubes (Water and Oils) Turbulent Forced-Convection Flow Across N Onbaffled Tube Banks with Circular Tubes Boiling Liquids and Condensing Vapors Heat Exchangers Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers Integrated Gasification Combined Cycles Introduction IGCC Processes IGCC Plant Considerations Turnkey Cost Size of IGCC Output Enhancement Emission Reduction Nitrogen Oxides Air Pollutants Mercury Carbon Dioxide Reliability, Availability, and Maintenance Bibliography Single-Shaft Combined-Cycle Power Generation Plants Ill 9.1 Introduction Ill 9.2 Performance of Single-Shaft Combined-Cycle Plants Environmental Impact Equipment Configurations Starting Systems Auxiliary Steam Supply Plant Arrangement Maintenance Advantages of Single-Shaft Combined-Cycle Plants Bibliography Selection of the Best Power Enhancement Option for Combined-Cycle Plants Plant Description Evaluation of Inlet-Air Pre-Cooling Option Evaluation of Inlet-Air Chilling Option Evaluation of Absorption Chilling System 123

s 10.5 Evaluation of the Steam and Water Injection Options 123 10.6 Evaluation of Supplementary Firing in HRSG Option 124 10.7 Comparison of All the Power Enhancement Options 124 10.

5 s 10.5 Evaluation of the Steam and Water Injection Options Evaluation of Supplementary Firing in HRSG Option Comparison of All the Power Enhancement Options Bibliography 124 Economics of Combined-Cycle and Cogeneration Plants Introduction Natural Gas Prices Economic Growth Financial Analysis Base Case Combined-Cycle Configuration Capital Cost Operating and Maintenance Cost Economic Evaluation of Different Combined-Cycle Configurations Electricity Purchase Rate Economic Consideration Conclusions Bibliography Appendix: Definitions of Terms Used in the Tables Appendix: Financial Analysis of the Different Configurations of Combined-Cycle Plants 142 Wind Power Turbine Generators Brushless Double-Feed Generators Introduction Basic System Configuration Equivalent Circuit for the Brushless Double-Fed Machine Parameter Extraction Generator Operation Converter Rating Machine Control Conclusions Bibliography 174 Gas Laws and Compression Principles Introduction Symbols Compressor Operation First Law of Thermodynamics Second Law of Thermodynamics Ideal or Perfect Gas Laws Property Relationships Vapor Pressure Partial Pressures Critical Conditions Gas Mixtures 187

Contents XÜi 13.4.7 The Mole 187 13.4.8 Volume Percent of Constituents 188 13.4.9 Molecular Weight of a Mixture 188 13.4.10 Specific Gravity and Partial Pressure 188 13.4.11 Specific Heats 189 13.4.12 Pseudo-Critical Conditions and Compressibility.

6 Contents XÜi The Mole Volume Percent of Constituents Molecular Weight of a Mixture Specific Gravity and Partial Pressure Specific Heats Pseudo-Critical Conditions and Compressibility Weight-Basis Item Compression Cycles Compressor Polytropic Efficiency Compressor Power Requirement Compressibility Correction Multiple Staging Compressor Volumetric Flow Rate Cylinder Clearance and Volumetric Efficiency Cylinder Clearance and Compression Efficiency Bibliography Appendix: List of Symbols Compressor Types and Applications Introduction Positive Displacement Compressors Rotary Compressors Reciprocating Compressors Dynamic Compressors Centrifugal Compressors Axial Flow Compressors Bibliography Compressors Compressor Types Compressor Operation Gas Laws Compressor Performance Measurement Inlet Conditions Compressor Performance Energy Available for Recovery Positive Displacement Compressors Reciprocating Compressors Trunk Piston Compressors Sliding Crosshead Piston Compressors Diaphragm Compressors Bellows Compressors Rotary Compressors Rotary Screw Compressors Lobe-Type Air Compressors Sliding Vane Compressors Liquid Ring Compressors 230

Xiv Contents 15.4.15 Dynamic Compressors 231 15.4.16 Centrifugal Compressors 231 15.4.17 Axial Compressors 232 15.4.18 Air Receivers 233 15.5 Compressor Control 233 15.

7 Xiv Contents Dynamic Compressors Centrifugal Compressors Axial Compressors Air Receivers Compressor Control Compressor Unloading System Intercooler and Aftercoolers Filters and Air Intake Screens Preventive Maintenance and Housekeeping Bibliography Performance of Positive Displacement Compressors Compressor Performance Positive Displacement Compressors Reciprocating Compressor Rating Reciprocating Compressor Sizing Capacity Control Compressor Performance Reciprocating Compressors Compressor Valves Reciprocating Compressors Leakage Screw Compressors Leakage Bibliography Reciprocating Compressors Introduction Crankshaft Design Bearings and Lubrication Systems Connecting Rods Crossheads Frames and Cylinders Compressor Cooling Pistons Piston and Rider Rings Valves Piston Rods Packings Cylinder Lubrication Distance Pieces Bibliography Reciprocating Air Compressors Troubleshooting and Maintenance Introduction Location Foundation Air Filters and Suction Lines Air Receiver Location and Capacity 289

Contents XV 18.6 Starting a New Compressor 290 18.7 Lubrication 292 18.8 Non-Lubricated Cylinders 293 18.9 Valves 293 18.10 Piston Rings 296 18.11 Intercoolers and Aftercoolers 296 18.

8 Contents XV 18.6 Starting a New Compressor Lubrication Non-Lubricated Cylinders Valves Piston Rings Intercoolers and Aftercoolers Cleaning Packing Bibliography Diaphragm Compressors Introduction Theory of Operation Compressor Design Materials of Construction Accessories Cleaning and Testing Applications Automotive Air Bag Filling Petrochemical Industries Limitations Installation and Maintenance Diaphragm Compressor Specification Bibliography Rotary Screw Compressors and Filter Separators Twin-Screw Machines Compressor Operation Applications of Rotary Screw Compressors Dry and Liquid Injected Compressors Operating Principles Flow Calculation Power Calculation Temperature Rise Capacity Control Mechanical Construction Industry Experience Maintenance History Performance Summary Oil-Flooded Single-Screw Compressors Selection of Modern Reverse-Flow Filter Separators Conventional Filter Separators and Self-Cleaning Coalescers Removal Efficiencies Filter Quality Selection of the Most Suitable Gas Filtration Equipment 345

XVi Contents 20.3.5 Evaluation of the Proposed Filtration Configurations 346 20.3.6 Life-Cycle-Cost Calculations 346 20.4 Conclusions 347 20.5 Bibliography 347 20.6 Appendix: Coke Fuel 348 20.6.1 Introduction 348 20.

9 XVi Contents Evaluation of the Proposed Filtration Configurations Life-Cycle-Cost Calculations Conclusions Bibliography Appendix: Coke Fuel Introduction Properties and Usage Other Coking Processes Bibliography Straight Lobe Compressors Applications Operating Characteristics Operating Principle Pulsation Characteristics Noise Characteristics Torque Characteristics Construction Rotors Casing Timing Gears Bearings Staging Higher Compression Ratios Power Reduction Installation Bibliography Recent Developments in Separating Liquid from Gases Introduction Removal Mechanisms Liquid/Gas Separation Technologies Gravity Separators Centrifugal Separators Mist Eliminators Filter Vane Separators Liquid/Gas Coalescers Selection of Liquid/Gas Separation Equipment Formation of Fine Aerosols Ratings and Sizing of Separation Equipment Bibliography Dynamic Compressors Technology Introduction Centrifugal Compressor Overview Axial Compressors Overview Bibliography 371

Contents XVII 24 Simplified Equations for Determining the Performance of Dynamic Compressors 373 24.1 Nonoverloading Characteristics of Centrifugal Compressors 373 24.2 Stability 373 24.

10 Contents XVII 24 Simplified Equations for Determining the Performance of Dynamic Compressors Nonoverloading Characteristics of Centrifugal Compressors Stability Speedy Change Compressor Drive Calculations Bibliography Centrifugal Compressors Components, Performance Characteristics, Balancing, Surge Prevention Systems, and Testing Introduction Casing Configuration Construction Features Diaphragms Interstage Seals Balance Piston Seal Impeller Thrust Performance Characteristics Slope of the Centrifugal Compressor Head Curve Stonewall Surge Off-Design Operation Rotor Dynamics Rotor Balancing Surge Prevention Systems Surge Identification Liquid Entrainment Instrumentation Cleaning Centrifugal Compressors Bibliography Appendix: Boundary Layer Definition Description of the Boundary Layer Separation: Wake Bibliography Compressor Auxiliaries, Off-Design Performance, Stall, and Surge Introduction Compressor Auxiliaries Compressor Off-Design Performance Low Rotational Speeds High Rotational Speeds Performance Degradation Bibliography 424

XVÜi Contents 27 Dynamic Compressors Performance 425 27.1 Description of a Centrifugal Compressor 425 27.2 Centrifugal Compressor Types 430 27.2.1 Compressors with Horizontally Split Casings 430 27.2.2 Centrifugal Compressors with Vertically Split Casings 430 27.

11 XVÜi Contents 27 Dynamic Compressors Performance Description of a Centrifugal Compressor Centrifugal Compressor Types Compressors with Horizontally Split Casings Centrifugal Compressors with Vertically Split Casings Compressors with Bell Casings Pipeline Compressors SR Compressors Performance Limitations Surge Limit Stonewall Prevention of Surge Anti-Surge Control Systems Bibliography Compressor Seal Systems Introduction The Supply System The Seal Housing System The Atmospheric Draining System The Seal Leakage System Gas Seals Liquid Seals Liquid Bushing Seals Contact Seals Restricted Bushing Seals Seal Supply Systems Flow Through the Gas Side Contact Seal Flow Through the Atmospheric Side Bushing Seal Flow Through the Seal Chamber Seal Liquid Leakage System Bibliography Dry Seals, Advanced Sealing Mechanisms, and Magnetic Bearings Introduction Background Dry Seals Operating Principles Operating Experience Problems and Solutions Upgrade Developments of Dry Seals Prevention of Dry Gas Seal Failures by Gas Conditioning Magnetic Bearings Operating Principles Operating Experience and Benefits 464

Contents Ш 29.4.3 Problems and Solutions 465 29.4.4 Development Efforts 465 29.5 Thrust-Reducing Seals 465 29.6 Integrated Design 467 29.7 Bibliography 471 30 Compressor System Calculations 473 30.

12 Contents Ш Problems and Solutions Development Efforts Thrust-Reducing Seals Integrated Design Bibliography Compressor System Calculations Calculations of Air Leaks from Compressed-Air Systems Annual Cost of Air Leakage Centrifugal Compressor Power Requirement Compressor Selection Selection of Compressor Drive Selection of Air Distribution System Water Cooling Requirements for Compressors Variation of Compressor Delivery with Inlet Air Temperature Sizing of Compressor System Components Calculation of Receiver Pump-Up Time Bibliography Pumps Introduction Centrifugal Pumps Theory of Operation of a Centrifugal Pump Casings and Diffusers Radial Thrust Hydrostatic Pressure Tests Impeller Axial Thrust Axial Thrust in Multistage Pumps Hydraulic Balancing Devices Mechanical Seals Bearings Couplings Bedplates Minimum Flow Requirement Centrifugal Pumps: General Performance Characteristics Cavitation Net Positive Suction Head Maintenance Recommended on Centrifugal Pumps Recommended Pump Maintenance Vibration Analysis Bibliography Centrifugal Pump Mechanical Seal Introduction Basic Components 517

XX Contents 32.2.1 Seal Balance 518 32.2.2 Face Pressure 519 32.2.3 Pressure-Velocity 521 32.2.4 Power Consumption 521 32.2.5 Temperature Control 522 32.2.6 Seal Lubrication/Leakage 527 33 Positive Displacement Pumps 555 33.

13 XX Contents Seal Balance Face Pressure Pressure-Velocity Power Consumption Temperature Control Seal Lubrication/Leakage Positive Displacement Pumps Reciprocating Pumps Piston Pumps Plunger Pumps Diaphragm Pumps Rotary Pumps Gear Pumps Screw Pumps Two- or Three-Lobe Pumps Cam Pumps Vane Pumps Bibliography Diaphragm Pumps Introduction Mechanically Driven Diaphragm Pumps Hydraulically Actuated Diaphragm Pumps Pneumatically Powered Diaphragm Pumps Materials of Construction Advantages and Limitations Limitations of Diaphragm Pumps Advantages of Diaphragm Pumps Bibliography Canned Motor Pumps Canned Motor Pumps Design and Applications Seal-Less Pump Motors Bibliography Troubleshooting of Pumps Pump Maintenance Daily Observations of Pump Operation Semiannual Inspection Annual Inspection Complete Overhaul Spare and Repair Parts Record of Inspections and Repairs Diagnoses of Pump Troubles Troubleshooting of Centrifugal Pumps Troubleshooting of Rotary Pumps 586

Contents xxi 36.4 Troubleshooting of Reciprocating Pumps 586 36.5 Troubleshooting of Steam Pumps 586 36.6 Vibration Diagnostics 588 36.6.1 Analysis Symptoms 588 36.6.2 Impeller Unbalance 601 36.6.3 Hydraulic Unbalance 602 36.

14 Contents xxi 36.4 Troubleshooting of Reciprocating Pumps Troubleshooting of Steam Pumps Vibration Diagnostics Analysis Symptoms Impeller Unbalance Hydraulic Unbalance Bibliography Water Hammer Introduction Nomenclature Basic Assumptions Effects of Water Hammer in High- and Low-Head Pumping Systems Magnitude of the Pulse Possible Causes of Water Hammer Mitigating Measures to Water Hammer Applications of Water Hammer Power Failure at Pump Motors Pumps with No Valves at the Pump Pumps Equipped with Check Valves Controlled Valve Closure Surge Suppressors Water Column Separation Quick-Opening, Slow-Closing Valves One-Way Surge Tanks Air Chambers Surge Tanks Nonreverse Ratchets Normal Pump Shutdown Water Hammer Example Steam Hammer Bibliography Selection and Procurement of Pumps Introduction Engineering of System Requirements Fluid Type System-Head Curves Alternate Modes of Operation Margins Wear Future System Changes Selection of Pump and Driver Pump Characteristics Code Requirements 622

s 38.7.3 Fluid Characteristics 622 38.7.4 Pump Materials 623 38.7.5 Driver Type 623 38.8 Pump Specifications 623 38.8.1 Specification Types 623 38.8.2 Datasheet 624 38.8.3 Codes and Standards 624 38.

15 s Fluid Characteristics Pump Materials Driver Type Pump Specifications Specification Types Datasheet Codes and Standards Bidding Documents Technical Specification Commercial Terms Special Considerations Performance Testing Pump Drivers Special Control Requirements Drawing and Data Requirements Form Quality Assurance and Quality Control Bidding and Negotiation Public and Private Sector Bid List Evaluation of Bids Cost Efficiency Economic Life Spare Parts Guarantee/Warranty Sample Bid Evaluation Bibliography 635 Pumping System Calculations Analysis of Pumps Installed in Series Analysis of Pumps Installed in Parallel Selection of Pump Driver Speed Affinity Laws for Centrifugal Pumps Centrifugal Pump Selection Using Similarity or Affinity Laws Determination of Centrifugal Pump Capacity and Efficiency Selection of the Best Operating Speed for a Centrifugal Pump Calculate the Total Head of the Pump Pump Selection Procedure Draw the Proposed Piping Layout of the Pumping System Determine the Required Pump Capacity Determine the Total Head on the Pump Obtain the Physical and Chemical Data of the Liquid Being Pumped 656

Contents XXÜi 39.9.5 Select the Category and Type of Pump 657 39.9.6 Evaluate the Selected Pump 660 39.10 Bibliography 662 40 Bearings 663 40.1 Types of Bearings 663 40.1.1 Ball and Roller Bearings 663 40.

16 Contents XXÜi Select the Category and Type of Pump Evaluate the Selected Pump Bibliography Bearings Types of Bearings Ball and Roller Bearings Stresses During Rolling Contact Statistical Nature of Bearing Life Materials and Finish Sizes of Bearings Types of Rolling Bearings Thrust Bearings Lubrication The Viscosity of Lubricants Viscosity Units Significance of Viscosity Flow Through Pipes Variation of Viscosity with Temperature and Pressure Temperature Effect Viscosity Index Effect of Pressure on Viscosity Non-Newtonian Fluids Greases Vl-Improved Oils Oils at Low Temperatures Variation of Lubricant Viscosity with Use Oxidation Reactions Physical Reactions Housing and Lubrication Lubrication of Antifriction Bearings Bibliography Used Oil Analysis A Vital Part of Maintenance Proper Lube Oil Sampling Technique Test Description and Significance Visual and Sensory Inspections Chemical and Physical Tests Summary Bibliography Vibration Analysis The Application of Sine Waves to Vibration Multimass Systems Resonance Logarithms and Decibels 695

XXiv Contents 43.1.4 The Use of Filtering 695 43.1.5 Vibration Instrumentation 695 43.1.6 Transducer Selection 697 43.1.7 Machinery Example 699 43.1.8 Vibration Analysis 699 43.1.9 Vibration Causes 699 43.

17 XXiv Contents The Use of Filtering Vibration Instrumentation Transducer Selection Machinery Example Vibration Analysis Vibration Causes Forcing Frequency Causes Vibration Severity Appendix: A Case History (Condensate Pump Misalignment) Problem Test Data and Observations Corrective Actions Final Results Conclusion 703 Index 707

The Practical Pumping Handbook

The Practical Pumping Handbook by Ross Mackay ELSEVIER Contents Acknowledgements Dedication About the author xv xviii xix Centrifugal Pumps 1 1.1 The pump 1 1.2 Applications 2 1.3 Pump cases 4 1.3.1 Diffuser