Contents Table of Figures... 5 Introduction... 8 Industry Drivers... 13 Legislation and regulation... 13 Sulphur... 18 Meeting consumer requirements... 20 Gasoline Engine Technology... 22 Fuel efficiency... 22 Engine technology development... 23 Engine downsizing... 24 The 2/4SIGHT engine... 25 Torque enhancement system (VTES)... 27 Variable compression ratios... 29 Valve technology... 29 Variable valve technology... 29 Electro mechanical valve control... 32 Cylinder shutoff Variable Displacement Engine (VDE) or Displacement on Demand... 33 Combustion systems... 35 Gasoline Direct Injection... 35 Spray guided injection... 37 Alternative engine technologies... 38 The MUSIC engine... 38 The Duke Engine... 40 The Pivotal Engine... 40 Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI)... 41 The Daimler DiesOtto concept... 43 Split cycle engines... 44 Miller cycle engines... 45 Diesel Engine Technology... 47 Weight reduction and new powertrain materials... 51 Commonrail injection... 51 Commonrail for commercial vehicles... 52 Piezo technology... 53 Injection control systems closed loop... 56 Piston development... 57 Compacted Graphite Iron (CGI)... 58 Diesels in the US... 60 The economic benefits of engine families... 62 Summary and outlook... 63 Turbocharging... 65 Turbocharger Sectors... 65 Heavy Duty... 65 Light duty... 65 Performance... 65 Superchargers... 66 Turbocharging Versus Supercharging... 67 Wastegated turbochargers... 68 Turbocompounding... 68 Charged Air Coolers (CACs)... 69 Compressors... 70 Compressor mapping... 70 Bearing Systems... 71 Supplierbusiness Ltd 2010 3
Radial Bearing System... 71 Micro turbocharging... 72 Variable geometry... 72 Multiple Turbochargers... 74 Electronic controls and new materials... 77 Titanium Compressor Impellers... 79 Assisted turbocharging... 79 Exhaust aftertreatment... 80 Gasoline (Petrol) Engine Emissions... 81 Diesel Engine Emissions... 82 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)... 83 Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)... 84 System design... 87 Alternative powertrains... 89 Hybrid Technology... 89 Types of hybrid vehicle... 89 Micro Hybrids... 89 Electronic components... 91 Series hybrids... 92 Parallel hybrids... 92 Series/Parallel hybrids... 92 Full Hybrid... 93 Mild or Assist Hybrids... 93 Plug In or Dual Mode hybrids... 94 Hybrid transmissions... 94 One Mode and Two Mode Hybrids... 96 Regenerative braking... 97 Kinetic Energy Recovery System (KERS)... 98 Electric motors... 99 AC Motors... 100 DC Motors... 100 Synchronous motors... 101 Switch reluctance machines... 102 Battery Technology... 103 Lead acid... 105 Nickel metal hydride (NiMH)... 106 Sodium nickel chloride (NaNiCl)... 108 Lithium ion... 109 Li ion technology improvements... 111 Supercapacitors and ultracapacitors... 112 Alternative fuels... 114 Ethanol... 114 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) and Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)... 114 Biofuels... 119 Biofuels compatibility with today s engines... 121 Biodiesel... 122 Hydrogen... 124 The hydrogen internal combustion engine... 124 Hydrogen enriched compressed natural gas (HCNG)... 124 Fuel cell vehicles... 125 The different methods... 132 Liquefied hydrogen... 133 Compressed hydrogen... 133 Methanol... 133 Supplierbusiness Ltd 2010 4
Gasoline reformation... 133 Metal hydrides... 133 Nanotubes... 134 Sodium borohydride... 134 Cost factors... 134 Fuel cell advantages... 135 Future trends... 135 OEM Strategy... 137 Powertrain packages or modules... 139 Table of Figures Figure 1: Origins of CO 2 production... 9 Figure 2: Progress in vehicle electrification... 10 Figure 3: Powertrain strategic trends... 11 Figure 4: A range of technology steps to achieve emissions compliance... 11 Figure 5: Urban road transport NOx emissions 1990 2015... 13 Figure 6: Permitted emissions for cars by class.... 14 Figure 7: Specific emissions targets... 15 Figure 8: Current car manufacturers status against EU target... 16 Figure 9: Comparison of EU light vehicles against new proposed EU CO 2 limits... 16 Figure 10: fleet average weight and fleet average CO2 emissions by carmaker, compared with EU target curve... 17 Figure 11: International Sulphur content regulation 2007... 20 Figure 12: Emissions progress vs driving performance... 20 Figure 13: Light and heavy vehicle powertrain roadmaps... 21 Figure 14: Technology roadmaps for gasoline engines focused on CO 2 reduction... 22 Figure 15: Cost/ benefit of future powertrain choices... 24 Figure 16: The effect of engine downsizing on fuel consumption... 25 Figure 17: 2/4SIGHT prototype engine... 26 Figure 18: 2/4SIGHT engine concept... 26 Figure 19: VCR engine efficiency at various power levels... 28 Figure 20: Nissan s VVEL system... 31 Figure 21: A cam less engine using electro mechanical valve control on test at Lotus.... 31 Figure 22: Valeo s e valve system... 32 Figure 23: A comparison of wall guided and spray guided direct injection... 36 Figure 24: Cylinder head design layout for a four cylinder engine... 38 Figure 25: A 3 litre equivalent Duke Engine... 40 Figure 26: Water cooled pivotal piston engine... 41 Figure 27: The Scuderi split cycle engine... 44 Figure 28: Advanced heavy diesel engine technology roadmap... 47 Figure 29: Low temperature combustion effects on emissions... 47 Figure 30: Advanced light diesel technology roadmap... 48 Figure 31: Cummins LDECC engine family... 49 Figure 32: Continental s piezo injector... 54 Figure 33: Delphi s HP HD Diesel Common rail System...55 Figure 34: A comparison of direct acting injectors versus servo hydraulic injector spray patterns... 56 Figure 35: Diesel injection control today and in the future using closed loop control... 57 Figure 36: US diesel and gasoline prices in comparison with the WTI crude index... 61 Figure 37: Supercharged Audi 3.0L V6 Engine... 67 Figure 38: Scania 12 litre Euro IV engine with EGR and turbocompounding... 69 Figure 39: Compressor map of a turbocharger for passenger car applications... 71 Figure 40: Holset VGT Turbocharging Technology... 73 Supplierbusiness Ltd 2010 5
Figure 41: Tri turbo concept from Mercedes Benz... 76 Figure 42: BMW bi turbo... 76 Figure 43: Turbocharging technologies for high pressure charging... 78 Figure 44: A comparison between 1975 and 2009 passenger car exhaust system... 80 Figure 45: A Three way catalytic converter... 81 Figure 46: Heated TWC... 82 Figure 47: NOx /particulates trade off in cooled and non cooled EGR systems... 83 Figure 48: A schematic illustrating SCR... 85 Figure 49: Diesel Particulate Filter... 86 Figure 50: Diesel exhaust aftertreatment system schematic... 87 Figure 51: Ratio of engine and motor operation in the hybrid system... 89 Figure 52: Continental s ISAD Unit... 90 Figure 53: Stop start (micro hybrid) production forecast... 90 Figure 54: Delphi Belt Alternator Starter... 91 Figure 55: Hybrid electric vehicle drive configurations... 93 Figure 56: One Mode Hybrid Input Split EVT... 94 Figure 57: Two Mode Hybrid Input Split EVT... 95 Figure 58: One Mode Hybrid Input Split EVT... 95 Figure 59: Two Mode Hybrid with Input Split and Compound Split EVT Modes... 96 Figure 60: Two mode hybrid transmission... 97 Figure 61: Regenerative Braking System... 98 Figure 62: KERS charging phase and boost phase schematic... 99 Figure 63: A mechanical KERS system... 99 Figure 64: EV motors... 100 Figure 65: Switch reluctance machines... 102 Figure 66: Cost performance of battery technologies... 103 Figure 67: Battery price trend forecast... 104 Figure 68: Estimates of battery price development versus volume production... 105 Figure 69: Energy storage overview... 106 Figure 70: Battery technology evolution... 107 Figure 71: A typical Zebra battery module... 108 Figure 72: Lithium ion battery pack... 109 Figure 73: Energy density versus output density in battery systems... 111 Figure 74: A Ragone plot showing energy density vs power density for various energy storage devices... 112 Figure 75: CNG filling stations in Europe... 116 Figure 76: Bi fuel system components... 117 Figure 77: A SunLine Tranist Agency "SunBus" with Cummins Westport 5.9 litre B Gas Plus engine, refuelling with HCNG... 118 Figure 78: World biofuel targets... 119 Figure 79: First and second generation biofuels... 119 Figure 80: Well to wheel analysis for biofuels... 120 Figure 81: Pros and cons of first and second generation biofuels... 120 Figure 82: OEM manufactured CNG/ LPG engine options are limited... 122 Figure 83: Comparison of fuel cell technologies... 125 Figure 84: Mercedes Benz B Class Fuel Cell research vehicle... 126 Figure 85: Ballard's fuel cell stack... 129 Figure 86: Ford fuel cell components... 130 Figure 87: Ford's Focus fuel cell vehicle... 135 Figure 88: Regional CO 2 reduction performance... 137 Figure 90: Average European corporate CO 2 output 2006... 138 Figure 91: Gasoline and diesel paths to lower CO 2 emissions... 138 Figure 93: Passenger car electrification timeline... 139 Figure 94: Gasoline and diesel CO 2 reduction effects... 140 Supplierbusiness Ltd 2010 6
Figure 95: OEM CO 2 reduction strategy summary... 141 Figure 96: Ford sustainable technologies migration plan... 141 Figure 97: Ford advanced propulsion strategy... 142 Figure 98: GM gasoline technology programme... 142 Figure 99: Cost vs CO2 benefit for various powertrain technologies... 143 Figure 100: GM diesel technology programme... 144 Supplierbusiness Ltd 2010 7