This is a repository copy of Torque performance of axial flux permanent magnet fractional open slot machine with unequal teeth Article: Kierstead, H.J., Wang, R-J., Kamper, M.J., (20) Torque performance of axial flux permanent magnet fractional open slot machine with unequal teeth, Proc. of the Southern African Universities Power Engineering Conference, (SAUPEC), University of Cape Town, South Africa, pp. 203--207, 3-5 July 20 http://dx.doi.org/0.340/rg.2.2.32626.30400 Reuse Unless indicated otherwise, full text items are protected by copyright with all rights reserved. Archived content may only be used for academic research.
TORQUE PERFORMANCE OF AXIAL FLUX PERMANENT MAGNET FRACTIONAL OPEN SLOT MACHINE WITH UNEQUAL TEETH H J Kierstead*, R-J Wang** and M J Kamper** *Formerly Stellenbosch University, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Private Bag X, Matieland 7602, South Africa. **Stellenbosch University, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Private Bag X, Matieland 7602, South Africa. Abstract. Torque ripple in electrical machines is generally considered as an undesirable effect as it results with rough operation, vibration and noise. This paper looks into torque ripple minimization of fractional open slot axial flux permanent magnet machines by employing an optimization procedure; particularly interest is paid to a singlelayer machine with unequal teeth. Evaluation between the single-layer machine and its double-layer counterpart is highlighted, and the results show attractive performance of the single-layer machine with unequal teeth over its double-layer counterpart.. INTRODUCTION Fractional slot permanent magnet (PM) machines are currently receiving increased attention for electric vehicle applications. This is mainly attributed to their potential advantages in improved manufacturability, cost reduction and good performance. Amongst others, axial flux topologies with single-layer (SL) fractional open-slot windings are of particular interest as they are ideal options for pre-formed modular coils and of reduced ripple torque in some pole/slot combinations [-4]. Certain PM machines with regular slot SL fractional windings also show higher torque capacity than their double-layer (DL) counterpart [5-7]. The torque quality (ripple) of the former compares favourably to the latter when driven with trapezoidal wave currents, but with sinusoidal currents the effect is opposite [5]. Therefore this paper looks to investigate the possibility to improve the torque quality of SL machines with sinusoidal current excitation. To further enhance the torque performance of the SL PM machines, novel topologies of SL fractional slot machines with unequal teeth have been introduced in [8]. By the addition of unequal teeth, the slots become irregularly distributed and the winding factor in SL machines becomes adjustable, allowing for enhancement of the winding factor, an aspect not possible with DL machines. The typical method is to increase the tooth width around which the coil is wound and decrease width of the remaining teeth as shown by Fig. becoming Fig. 8. By this adaptation, the coil can link higher magnetic flux and better magnetic exploitation is achieved [9]. Nearly all the work done in this regard [8-2] is applied for trapezoidal wave currents, whereby the winding factor is fully maximised leading higher torque capacity and quality when compared to DL machines. In [] and [2] a similar occurrence of increased capacity and inferior quality as in [5] is reported when these topologies are driven with sinusoidal currents. Additionally the works [8-2] deal with radial flux structures with semi-enclosed slots, and the effects of the magnet pitch are not treated for except in [0]. In [2], open-slot axial flux machines are presented with unequal teeth; the machines presented are also driven by trapezoidal currents and are modelled as radial flux structures. Of all the works done none dealt with FE-coupled optimization of machine parameters with the main objective of torque quality improvement. This work aims to objectively improve torque quality in open-slot axial flux PM machines driven by sinusoidal currents, by full FE-coupled optimization of the main machine parameters affecting torque. The work involves comparative analysis of a SL and DL machine, in which both are optimized objectively for torque ripple minimization. 2. MACHINE TOPOLOGIES Fig. shows linearized 2D models of two fractional open slot (30-pole/36-slot) axial flux permanent magnet machines, in which is of single-layer topology while is of double-layer topology. The 30-pole/36-slot combinations are popular due to their high fundamental winding factors, high lowest common multiples, and high greatest common divisors. The machines were previously optimized for maximum torque density under sinusoidal excitation and will be used as base machines. Design data of the machines is presented in Table. Fig. : Base machine models; single-layer with equal teeth, and double-layer.
Table : Design Data of Base Machines Single Layer Double Layer Stator outer diameter, mm 330 330 Total axial length, mm 55 55 Diameter Ratio 0.69 0.652 Magnet arc to pitch ratio, r f 0.95 0.9 Slot to teeth width ratio, k d 0.653 0.563 Teeth width ratio, c p 3. TORQUE RIPPLE MINIMIZATIONS 3. Finite Element Modeling The axial flux machines are modelled as linearized 2D structures with negative boundary conditions and an air-gap element as shown in Fig.. The torque performances of these machines are calculated by both the Maxwell stress tensor and virtual work methods given by: T T vw = 2 avg pr L μ 0 θ θ dw r ds 2 avg B B dθ r θ ΔW r Δs avg () = (2) where p is the pole pairs, r avg the average air-gap radius, L the machine axial length, BBr and B θb the flux density components from the macro air-gap element, W is the magnetic co-energy, and s some small displacement. To validate the accuracy of the FEM torque calculation, a double-layer 30-pole/27-slot AFPM machine shown in Fig. 2 has been modeled [3]. The measured and calculated torque versus current (i d =0) characteristics are compared in Fig. 3. It is evident that both results correlate well with each other. Torque [Nm] 450 400 350 300 250 200 50 00 50 0 Maxwell stress Virtual work Measured 0 5 0 5 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Current [A] Fig. 3: Torque of the AFPM machine at different armature currents. rque [Nm] To Torque [Nm] 365 360 355 350 345 SL DL 340 0 50 00 50 200 Electrical Position [Deg] 36 360 359 358 357 356 357 0 50 00 50 Electrical Position [Deg] Fig. 4: Instantaneous torque waveforms, single and double layer machines, Maxwell stress tensor and co-energy method (co-energy approximately Nm less) for single-layer winding. 362 36 360 359 358 Fig. 2: Single-sided AFPM machine with double-layer fractional open slot winding, rotor and stator. The instantaneous torque waveforms of two base machines of Fig. are shown in Fig. 4. The instantaneous torque of the single-layer machine, calculated by the two FE methods, is shown in Fig. 4, and the results agree well with only about 0.3 % difference. From the initial instantaneous torque waveforms of the base machines presented, in Fig. 4 it is evident that the single-layer machine has higher torque capability but with higher ripple content than the double-layer machine in agreement with [5], [-2], [4]. 3.2 Optimization for Minimum Torque Ripple a) Parameters affecting torque ripple In the two base machines, the parameters chosen to investigate torque ripple are the magnet arc to pitch ratio r f, slot to teeth width ratio k d and the teeth width ratio c p as shown in Fig. 5, as follows: PM pole r f = ; pole pitch k d c p slot width = ; tooth pitch - slot width inner tooth width = (applicable only tosl machine). outer tooth width
Fig. 5: Representation section of single layer PM machine with unequal teeth. b) Optimization procedure The optimization procedure involves first the definition of the objective function for the optimizations, which is given by, F y wε, n = (3) par i i i= where y par is the parameter to be maximised / minimised, (in this case to minimize the peak to peak ripple, y par =T ave / ripple p-p ), ε i the penalty functions, and w i the respective weighting factors. The penalty functions are added to the objective function in order not to violate the limits of secondary functions. The optimizations involve variation of the machine parameters given in section 3.2, while all other machine parameters are kept constant. Peak to peak ripple is obtained by capturing the peaks as the machine is rotated over 60 electrical (due to symmetry). Due to the machines having different torque capabilities at each case, for fair basis of comparison, torque ripple results are shown on a per unit system, based on the average machine torque at each case. The subsequent flow charts in Fig. 6 illustrate the methods. The first method uses a graphical approach while in the second method the Powell s optimization algorithm is applied. 4. RESULTS 4. Double layer machine: Effects of magnet pitch and slot width As double-layer topologies cannot use unequal teeth, the optimization parameters are limited to only two. The graphical method of Fig. 6 was applied to obtain the surface plots shown in Fig. 7. The points of minimum torque ripple and maximum torque are presented in Table 2. 4.2 Single Layer: Magnet pitch, slot width and unequal teeth For this topology with equal teeth the winding factor is limited to 0.966, but by using unequal teeth, winding factors up to unity can be obtained. The FE optimization method used in this section involves the method of Fig. 6. Fig. 8 shows the machine model with unequal teeth, and Table 2 gives the optimization results. Per Unit Ripple Torque [Nm] Set Initial Start Values & Range: k d, r f, c p Call FE Rotate 60 electr. Record ripple p-p Optimization Algorithm Objective Function Max? Yes END Update k d, r f, c p Fig. 6: Flow charts of design technique for double-layer machine, and single-layer machine 0. 0.05 0 350 300 250 200 0.9 PM Pole Arc Ratio 0.9 PM Pole Arc Ratio 0.7 0.7 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4 No 0.6 Slot Width Ratio 0.6 Slot Width Ratio Fig. 7: Peak to peak ripple and average torque of doublelayer machine.
Table 2: Optimization results based on the same copper losses Winding Torque Per Unit k d r f c p Factor [Nm] Ripple SL Base 0.653 0.95 0.966 (fixed) 359 0.0392 SL Min Ripple 0.653 0.9.02 0.968 362 0.0093 SL Max Torque 0.555 0.93.6 0.986 377 0.03527 DL Base 0.563 0.9 0.945 (fixed) 343 0.00728 DL Min Ripple 0.65 0.92 0.945 (fixed) 332 0.0057 DL Max Torque 0.55 0.96 0.945 (fixed) 354 0.03463 As can be seen from the results, by adjusting the teeth ratio c p, a higher winding factor is obtainable for SL machines (Table 2). With the SL machine optimized for minimum ripple, the torque only slightly increases but there is a good 84% reduction in torque ripple compared to the base machine with equal teeth. For the DL machine, there is also good reduction in ripple content of 42% compared to the base machine, but with this a loss in average torque of 3.3%. In Fig. 9, the torque waveforms of the two machines before and after being optimized are presented to show the optimization development made. Further optimizations of the base machines were done but instead for maximum torque capability. The results are given in Table 2 and show in both cases an increased torque capability but with poor torque quality. 5. CONCLUSION By full FE-coupled optimization of the main machine parameters that affect torque performance, the problem of improved torque capacity but with reduced torque quality of SL machines with sinusoidal currents could be eliminated. The results show that both the torque capacity and torque quality of the sinusoidal driven SL machine compares favorably over its DL counterpart. This paper also presents an alternative method to either enhance torque capability or minimize torque ripple in open slot single-layer PM machines by using unequal teeth. It shows that the torque ripple in sinusoidal machines can be significantly reduced by incorporating unequal teeth. It should be noted that the manufacturability for unequal teeth SL machines may seem to be not as good as initial equal teeth one, however, the manufacturing costs are not necessarily more expensive. This is because the manufacturing process is practically the same once a dedicated rolling and punching process is set up. Fig. 8: Linear model of SL machine with unequal teeth Fig. 9: Instantaneous torque waveforms of SL and DL machines before and after being optimized for minimum torque ripple REFERENCES [] P. Salminen, J. Pyrhönen, F. Libert and J. Soulard, Torque Ripple of Permanent Magnet Machines with Concentrated Windings, ISEF, Spain, Sept. 2005. [2] R. Neji, S. Tounsi and F. Sellami, Contribution to the definition of a permanent magnet motor with reduced production cost for the electric vehicle propulsion, Euro. Trans. Electr. Power, 6: 437-460, 2006. [3] A. Rix, M. Kamper, R-J Wang, Torque Ripple and Flux Density Variation Due to Stator Slot Opening of Concentrated Coil Permanent Magnet Machine, Southern African Universities Power Engineering Conference (SAUPEC), Cape Town, 2007. [4] P. Salminen, M. Niemelä, J. Pyrhönen and J. Mantere, High-Torque Low-Ripple Fractional- Slot PM-Motors, Proceedings of IEEE IEMDC, pp.44 48, May 2005. [5] D. Ishak, Z. Q. Shu and D. Howe, Comparison of PM Brushless Motors, Having Either All Teeth or Alternate Teeth Wound, IEEE Trans- EC 2(): 95-03, Mar. 2006.
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