Contents List of contributors Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy Preface ix xiii xix 1 Rechargeable lithium batteries: key scientific and technological challenges 1 M. Bini, D. Capsoni, S. Ferrari, E. Quartarone, P. Mustarelli 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Current market position of rechargeable lithium batteries, chiefly as far as concerns the portable electronics 3 1.3 Major fundamental and technological challenges in the development of rechargeable lithium batteries 4 1.4 Future trends and developments 12 1.5 Sources of further information 13 References 14 Part One Materials and characterization 19 2 Materials for positive electrodes in rechargeable lithium-ion batteries 21 F. Liu, P.P. Mukherjee 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 Overview of different metal oxide cathode materials 21 2.3 Lithium intercalation mechanism 27 Acknowledgments 37 References 37 3 Catalytic cathode nanomaterials for rechargeable lithium air batteries: status and challenges 41 H. Cheng, K. Scott 3.1 Introduction 41 3.2 Catalysts for air cathodes 42 3.3 Support materials for air cathodes 58 3.4 Future trends 64 3.5 Sources of further information and advice 65 References 67
vi Contents 4 Electrolytes for rechargeable lithium batteries 73 M. Montanino, S. Passerini, G.B. Appetecchi 4.1 Introduction 73 4.2 Organic liquid electrolytes 73 4.3 Ionic liquid electrolytes 83 4.4 Polymer electrolytes 90 4.5 Solid inorganic electrolytes 95 4.6 Future trends 97 4.7 Sources of further information and advice 98 References 98 Appendix: list of acronyms 114 5 Materials and technologies for rechargeable lithium sulfur batteries 117 N. Azimi, Z. Xue, S.S. Zhang, Z. Zhang 5.1 Introduction 117 5.2 Fundamental chemistry of lithium sulfur (Li S) battery 118 5.3 Problems and challenges 120 5.4 Current advances in the Li S battery 121 5.5 Conclusions and outlook 138 References 139 6 Electrochemistry of rechargeable lithium air batteries 149 J. Hou, X. Jie, J. Graetz, M.W. Ellis, R.B. Moore, K. Uosaki 6.1 Introduction 149 6.2 Fundamental electrochemical analysis of the lithium air (Li air) battery 151 6.3 Application of model electrode 162 6.4 Future trends 176 References 176 7 Electrochemical characterization of rechargeable lithium batteries 183 C. Villevieille 7.1 Introduction 183 7.2 Advantages and disadvantages of ex situ and in situ/operando techniques 184 7.3 Common in situ cell designs 184 7.4 Bulk characterizations 188 7.5 Surface characterizations 205 7.6 Optical characterizations 217 7.7 Conclusion 224 Acknowledgments 224 References 224
Contents vii 8 Atomistic modeling of the behavior of materials in rechargeable lithium-ion and lithium air batteries 233 P. Kaghazchi 8.1 Introduction 233 8.2 Method 234 8.3 Si anodes 239 8.4 Initial stage of solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation on Si surfaces 246 8.5 Sn anodes 251 8.6 Role of defective graphene in lithium air (Li air) battery cathodes 255 8.7 Conclusions and outlook 256 Acknowledgments 257 References 258 Part Two Performance and applications 261 9 Aging and degradation of lithium-ion batteries 263 N. Omar, Y. Firouz, H. Gualous, J. Salminen, T. Kallio, J.M. Timmermans, Th. Coosemans, P. Van den Bossche, J. Van Mierlo 9.1 Introduction 263 9.2 Methodology 264 9.3 Results 265 9.4 Conclusions 277 References 277 10 System-level management of rechargeable lithium-ion batteries 281 A.G. Stefanopoulou, Y. Kim 10.1 Introduction 281 10.2 Battery state estimation 282 10.3 Battery cell equalization 289 10.4 Battery thermal management 291 10.5 Conclusion 297 References 298 11 Environmental performance of lithium batteries: life cycle analysis 303 M. Messagie, L. Oliveira, S. Rangaraju, J.S. Forner, M.H. Rivas 11.1 Introduction 303 11.2 Problem setting: environmental impacts and lithium resource availability 304 11.3 Depletion of metal resources: the case of lithium 305 11.4 Methodology: life cycle assessment of batteries 307 11.5 Results: life cycle impact assessment 309 11.6 Conclusions 316 References 317 Appendix: abbreviations 318
viii Contents 12 Rechargeable lithium batteries for energy storage in smart grids 319 K. Zaghib, A. Mauger, C.M. Julien 12.1 Introduction 319 12.2 Energy storage 320 12.3 Lithium-ion batteries 330 12.4 Supercapacitors 338 12.5 Vehicle-to-grid 339 12.6 Future trends 341 References 344 13 Rechargeable lithium batteries for medical applications 353 M.J. Cleland 13.1 Introduction 353 13.2 Critical care and patient monitoring 353 13.3 Defibrillation 355 13.4 Heart failure 357 13.5 Circulatory assist devices 358 13.6 Biomedical engineering 361 13.7 Summary 365 References 365 14 Rechargeable lithium batteries for aerospace applications 369 W.Q. Walker 14.1 Introduction 369 14.2 Primary aerospace applications 372 14.3 Recent aerospace-related lithium/lithium-ion (Li/Li-ion) battery failures 379 14.4 Future trends 381 14.5 Sources of further information 382 References 382 Index 385