Measurement of particle emissions from small engines during real-world operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 1 Michal Vojtíšek-Lom 1,2 Martin Pechout 2 Luboš Dittrich 2 Aleš Dittrich 2 Michael Fenkl 2 Vít Beránek 1 Jitka Štolcpartová 3 1 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Czech Technical University of Prague 2 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technical University of Liberec, CZ 3 Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, CZ michal.vojtisek@fs.cvut.cz tel. +420 / 777 262 854 www.medetox.cz
Measurement of gases and PM with on-board system Sampling of PM with on-board proportional sampling system PEMS Low-profile installation EURO 5 DOC, DPF (particle filter), no SCR 2012 Iveco Daily, 3.0-liter Iveco engine Emissions of particulate matter very low even during Miniature 1-hour idle and generally well below 1 mg/m3 partial-flow dilution tunnel Proportional exhaust particle sampling operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 2
Is diesel PM becoming more of a question of public policy rather than technology? Emissions of particulate matter very low even during 1-hour idle and generally well below 1 mg/m3 EURO 5 DOC, DPF (particle filter), 2012 Iveco Daily, 3.0-liter Iveco e Emissions of particulate matter very low 1-hour idle and generally well below 1 With DPF Euro 5 with no DPF (Prague, CZ) operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 3
Gasoline engine real-driving PM emissions operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 4
acceleration [m/s2] acceleration [m/s2] PM in raw exhaust [mg/m3] PM mass emissions [ug/s] road speed [km/h] Gasoline engine on-road PM emissions steady speed vs. full-power acceleration 10000 1000 PM [ug/s] PM [mg/m3] km/h GPS 160 140 120 100 100 80 60 6 5 4 3 2 1 0-1 -2-3 -4 10 1 6 0 12:15:00 12:25:00 12:35:00 12:45:00 12:55:00 Area 13:05:00 of each mark is 5 proportional to the Instantaneous fuel consumption 4 instantaneous PM emissions in mg/s 3 Fuel consumption 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 vehicle speed [km/h] 2 1 0-1 -2-3 -4 Instantaneous PM emissions 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 vehicle speed [km/h] 40 20 operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 5
Gasoline engine PM emissions DISI vs. MPI Chassis dynamometer tests by authors (warm - no cold start) Direct injection (DISI): Škoda Octavia 1.4 TSI (Euro 5) Port injection (MPI): Škoda Fabia 1.4 MPI (Euro 4) NEDC direct injection Artemis urban & rural WLTP US06 Artemis motorway 130 Artemis motorway 150 port injection 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 EURO 5 mass limit PM mass mg/km operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 6
Gasoline PM: deterioration vs. enrichment effects Chassis dynamometer tests by authors (warm - no cold start) Direct injection: Škoda Octavia 1.4 TSI (Euro 5) Port injection: 2 x Škoda Fabia 1.4 MPI (Euro 4) NEDC Artemis urban & rural WLTP US06 Artemis motorway 130 Artemis motorway 150 direct injection 20 K km port injection 30 K km port injection 208 K km Deterioration apparent on NEDC, but not on Artemis motorway 130 & 150 where enrichment is the dominant cause of high PM ~ 50x NEDC EURO 5 mass limit 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 PM mass [mg/km] operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 7
Gasoline engine PN emissions Chassis dynamometer tests by authors (warm - no cold start) Direct injection: Škoda Octavia 1.4 TSI (Euro 5) Port injection: 2 x Škoda Fabia 1.4 MPI (Euro 4) EURO 5 PN limit NEDC Artemis urban & rural WLTP US06 Artemis motorway 130 direct injection 20 K km port injection 30 K km port injection 208 K km Old MPI was not able to follow US06 or Artemis 150 Artemis motorway 150 0 1E+12 2E+12 3E+12 4E+12 PN - Particle number (PMP) [#/km] operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 8
Gasoline engine PM: Choice of cycles WLTP is not as lame as NEDC, but does it cover the problem enrichment at high load (prohibited by EPA)? US06 and Artemis motorway cycles as a supplement? EURO 5 PM mass limit EURO 5 PN limit NEDC Artemis urban & rural direct injection 20 K km port injection 30 K km WLTP US06 Artemis motorway 130 Artemis motorway 150 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 PM mass [mg/km] operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 9
This work: Particle emissions from small engines under real driving conditions Cheap simple engines No electronic controls No aftertreatment Immediate proximity of the operator from the tailpipe Approaches: On-board system Off-board system on accompanying vehicle PM sampling operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 10
This work: Particle emissions from small engines under real driving conditions Only direct exhaust emissions considered here. Non-engine & secondary emissions not considered. operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 11
Low-cost on-board monitoring system designed & used by the author: Analytical hardware Response approximately proportional to PM mass concentrations for a given engine Nephelometer (laser scattering) Filtered dilution air CAT 10-12 lpm raw exhaust Before or after DOC, DPF, Condensate and large particle removal Sample cool & reheat Charge meter (ionization chamber) Modified ionization smoke alarm (a 100 EUR system) - response proportional to total particle length (close to lung deposited surface area?) F-FC-P F-FC-P F-FC-P F-FC-P F-FC-P NDIR-HC,CO,CO2 NDIR-HC,CO,CO2 chem.cell NO chem.cell NO Filter, flow control, pump Engine outflow operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 12
Novel concept for on-board nanoparticle sensor Measures total particle length concentration (Correlation to lung deposited surface area?) heated ionization smoke detector (commercially available for fire protection in buildings) undiluted raw exhaust (multiplied by intake air flow for absolute measurements) ~ 25 mm/cm 3 sensitivity ~~ 0.1 mg/m 3 or 10 6 #/cm 3 ~~ 0.5 mg/kwh 5x10 12 #/kwh cheap (<100 EUR) poor man s PEMS concept possibility of use in periodic inspections operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 13
ionization chamber length concentration [mm/cm3] PM length measurement comparison 0.1 g/kwh PM engine, various fuels and modes, EC 1%-79% reference: EEPS sampling from dilution tunnel ionization chamber length concentration [mm/cm3] ionization chamber length concentration [mm/cm3] heated ionization smoke detector undiluted raw exhaust (multiplied by intake air flow for comparison measurements) ~ 0.1 mg/m3 sensitivity cheap (100 EUR) poor man s PEMS concept 1000 100 10 1 mass Rapeseed oil no DPF Rapeseed oil with DPF Diesel fuel no DPF Diesel fuel with DPF 1000 Rapeseed oil no DPF Rapeseed oil with DPF 0.01 0.1 1 10 EEPS total mass concentration (at 0.55 g/cm3) [mg/m3] 100 Diesel fuel no DPF Rapeseed oil no DPF 1000 Diesel fuel with DPF Rapeseed oil with DPF Diesel fuel no DPF Diesel fuel with DPF 10 1 length length mean mobility diameter 1 10 100 1000 EEPS total length concentration [mm/cm3] 100 10 PN>23 nm with volatiles 1 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07 EEPS total number concentration > 23 nm [#/cm3] operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 14
Aftertreatmemt Aftertreatmemt Low-cost on-board system overview (Vojtisek-Lom and Cobb, CRC On-road vehicle emissions workshop, 1998) Engine ECU Direct measurement Diagnostic interface Measured concentrations HC, CO, CO2, NO, particulates Mass air flow, intake air pressure and temperature, engine rpm, vehicle speed, engine temperatures GPS position. Speed, altitude Time signal Time shift (delay) Determined experimentally η vol * M air * p intake * ω * displacement Q vzd = --------------------------------------------- R * T intake Synchronization of data Harmonization of sample interval to 1 s 1. Exhaust gas flow calculations 2. Mass emissions = const. x concentration x exhaust flow 3. Fuel consumption = C emissions (PM, HC, CO, CO2) / C in fuel Integrating: Emissions per test, distance, kg of fuel Data recording operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 15
On-board system versatility: Motorcycle to locomotive Truck Battery 5 Hz GPS receiver Speed, position, altitude Intake air manifold absolute pressure Raw exhaust sampling point (no dilution) 2009 Coliber Fartt scooter 0.049 liter carbureted engine Locomotive 163 liter diesel Special adapter fabricated and inserted before muffler (outside air penetrates well into tailpipe) Engine speed measured with optical tachometer operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 16
Advanced on-board analysis: FTIR, EEPS, sampling On-board FTIR Online gaseous pollutants CO2, CH4, N2O, NH3, formaldehyde,... On-board EEPS online particle classifier 5-560 nm, 1 Hz operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 17
Portable proportional sampling Diluted sample flow through filter is constant (20-50 dm3/min). Dilution air flow is regulated so that raw exhaust flow into microdilution tunnel is proportional to the total exhaust flow. HEPA filtered air is metered into microdilution tunnel near sampling point. Raw exhaust flow = = total sample flow dilution air flow Exhaust flow ~ measured intake air flow operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 18
MAF [kg/h] sample flow [g/s] MAF [kg/h] sample flow [g/s] 500 Enhanced gain algorithm: Fast response vs. stability and repeatability (diesel engine, 3 consecutive runs of ETC cycle, Juliska, CVUT, 2012) 5 400 300 200 4 3 2 100 0 MAF3 MAF2 MAF1 Sample3 Sample1 Sample2 19:20:00 19:21:00 19:22:00 19:23:00 19:24:00 19:25:00 1 0 250 240 MAF3 MAF2 MAF1 Sample3 Sample1 Sample2 2.5 2.4 230 220 2.3 2.2 210 200 high stability & repeatability during highway cruise section of ETC 17:26:30 17:27:30 17:28:30 17:29:30 17:30:30 17:31:30 17:32:30 17:33:30 17:34:30 2.1 2 operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 19
portable gravimetric [mg/test] portable gravimetric [mg/test] Portable proportional sampling vs. traditional system: PM mass per transient test cycle In-use diesel engines, various manufacturers, ~ 1-50 mg/kwh PM Transient operation on engine dynamometer (NRTC, WHTC, ETC) CVUT - Juliska: DC dynamometer, reference AVL SmartSampler TUV - Lihovarska: AC dynamometer, reference AVL SmartSampler CVUT - VTP: AC dynamometer, reference full-flow dilution tunnel 10000 140 CVS, ~ 1-5 mg/kwh PM CVS 120 1000 Smartsampler 100 100 10 1 CVS CVS VTP-NRTC WHTC-noDPF VTP-WHTC VTP-ETC Lihovarska-WHTC Juliska-NRTC 1 10 100 1000 10000 reference gravimetric [mg/test] 80 60 40 20 0 VTP-NRTC VTP-ETC VTP-WHTC VTP-ESC Lihovarska-WHTC Juliska-NRTC 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 reference gravimetric [mg/test] operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 20
Experimental Motorcycle (scooter) 4-cycle 50-cc SI engine 13 kg PEMS on luggage rack 5 Hz GPS receiver Speed, position, altitude Intake air manifold absolute pressure Raw exhaust sampling point (no dilution) Battery 2009 Coliber Fartt scooter 0.049 liter carbureted engine Battery-powered system SAE J-2711: Pre-run & at least 3 runs along the route Special adapter fabricated and inserted before muffler (outside air penetrates well into tailpipe) Engine speed measured with optical tachometer operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 21
Altitude [m] Experimental Test route City stage Downhill stage Route length: approx. 13 km Start point altitude: 410 m Peak altitude: 660 m Lowest point altitude: 380 m Steep rise 700 650 Altitude profile of the testing route 600 550 500 450 Steep rise Downhill stage City stage 400 350 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 Elapsed distance [m] operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 22
How a scooter is driven Mostly full power or nothing, pulse-width modulation Example: Liberec region, each point = 1 second of operation Distinct regions: idle, full-power, engine braking, transitions MAP [kpa] 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Idle City Uphill Downhill Operating conditions 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 engine rpm Full throttle Transitions Engine braking operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 23
MAP [kpa] MAP [kpa] MAP [kpa] Emissions patterns Larger particles (detected by light scattering) and hydrocarbons dominated by transitions CO high during transitions and at full power 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Particulate matter mass (nephelometer) City Uphill Downhill 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 engine rpm 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 City Hydrocarbon emissions rates Uphill Downhill 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 engine rpm Carbon monoxide emissions rates operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 24 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 City Uphill Downhill 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 engine rpm
MAP [kpa] MAP [kpa] MAP [kpa] 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Emissions patterns Larger particles (detected by light scattering) and hydrocarbons dominated by transitions Small particles (detected by ionization chamber) emitted throughout the operating range Particulate matter mass (nephelometer) City Uphill Downhill NOx highest at full power 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 engine rpm Nitrogen oxides emissions rates operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 25 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 City Uphill Downhill 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 engine rpm Particulate matter length (ionization chamber) 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 City Uphill Downhill 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 engine rpm
Motorcycle (scooter) test summary per km Emissions per km HC [g] Route length: approx. 13 km Start point altitude: 410 m Peak altitude: 660 m CO [g] Lowest point altitude: 380 m NOx [g] PM laser [mg] PM ion1 [km] PM ion2 [km] CO2 [g] Urban 2.72 11.2 0.50 3.3 406 386 53 Rural 1.30 8.4 0.41 2.7 320 255 39 operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 26
Off-board full-flow dilution tunnel Mass flow meter PEMS Sample filter 142-150 mm Blower 50 EUR retired baby stroller (a designer 5000 EUR PEMS cart available) An industrial vacuum cleaner can be used in lieu of the blower Highly insulated transfer line Intake manifold pressure sensor rpm sensor Not a true CVS: As all exhaust passes through the filter, constant flow does not have to be maintained. operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 27
Off-board full-flow dilution tunnel Entrance of raw exhaust Power options: lithium battery & 1000 W inverter extension cord to generator or power outlet Dilution air inlet & filter Transfer line operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 28
Choice of raw / diluted measurement Sampling ( CVS ) mode: PEMS measuring diluted exhaust Diluted mass exhaust flow measured directly All diluted exhaust sampled through the filter (no need for absolutely constant flow) Raw & PEMS only mode: Intake air flow computed from engine rpm, manifold pressure and temperature PEMS measuring raw exhaust CVS not needed air/fuel ratio monitoring operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 29
High-volume sampling for advanced analysis 30-60 m 3 /min sampling on 142/150 mm filters for analyses (i.e. PAH) and toxicological assays Isokinetic or constant flow sampling is not necessary as 100% of exhaust is sampled operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 30
Base mower test sequence: CVS on, Engine start, mowing until clipping bag is full, engine off, CVS off CO [%], CO2 [%], ground speed [km/h]. HC [ppm], NOx [ppm]. Variations due to uneven lawn density & qualities 1 0.9 0.8 CO2 CO HC NOx sampling 400 350 300 Large HC spike at (ignition) shutdown 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 250 200 150 0.3 100 0.2 0.1 50 0 0 14:58:00 15:08:00 15:18:00 15:28:00 15:38:00 operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 31
Base weedeater sequence: CVS on, Engine start, mowing until CVS filter is full, engine off, CVS off CO [%], CO2 [%], ground speed [km/h]. HC [ppm], NOx [ppm]. Variations due to uneven lawn density & qualities 4 3.5 3 CO2 km/h CO NOx HC sampling 400 350 300 Large HC spike at (ignition) shutdown 2.5 2 250 200 1.5 150 1 100 0.5 50 0 16:33:00 16:38:00 16:43:00 16:48:00 16:53:00 16:58:00 0 operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 32
Lawnmower and weed-eater test summary (PAH analysis and toxicology assays to follow) Wolfgarden 4-cycle Briggs&Stratton Wolfgarden US EPA 4-cycle Stage II Briggs&Stratton US Stiga EPA Stage II 4-cycle Briggs&Stratton Stiga US EPA 4-cycle Phase 1 Briggs&Stratton US EPA Phase 1 Mid-90's 4-cycle mower Mid-90's 4-cycle mower Weed-eater Stihl FS350 Weed-eater 2-cycle Stihl FS350 2-cycle PM [g/h] Pall TX40 filters 2-44 mg/filter PM [g/h] Quartz fiber filters hundreds mg/filter 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 PM [g/h] (mass deposited on filter) 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 PM [g/h] (mass deposited on filter) operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 33
CARB Stage II Lawnmower effect of alcohol fuels 30% iso-butanol, 30% n-butanol in gasoline (SAE 2014, submitted) HC [g/kg] CO [g/kg] NOx [g/kg] Fuel [g/h] Gasoline cold 19 256 3,1 433 Gasoline 19±5 293±46 6,1±1,6 387±82 30% Isobutanol 13±4 279±52 7,7±1,9 368±28 30% n-butanol 12±1 233±20 8,3±0,3 387±72 PAH [ug/kg] cpah [ug/kg] BaP [ug/kg] Gasoline cold 763 80.2 16.8 Gasoline warm 24 4.6 0.3 30% Isobutanol 83 8.8 1.5 30% n-butanol 21 2.3 0.2 operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 34
PN in diluted exhaust [#/cm3] CARB Stage II 2 kw genset alcohol fuels 10%, 30%, 50%, 70%, 100% n-butanol (Diploma thesis Jan Vodrazka, TU Liberec, 2014) 1.0E+08 1.0E+07 1.0E+06 1.0E+05 1.0E+04 1.0E+03 1.0E+02 1.0E+01 1.0E+00 Gas 25. 4. nbu30 nbu70 Gas 7. 5. 75% load 1 10 100 1000 particle electric mobility diameter [nm] operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 35
Conclusions real-world driving emissions of small engines They are of a concern - gasoline engines produce nanoparticles - primitive technology - proximity of the operator They can be measured - low-cost dilution tunnel - full-flow sampling - on-board & off-board systems operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 36
Acknowledgements EU LIFE+ program, project MEDETOX - Innovative Methods of Monitoring of Diesel Engine Exhaust Toxicity in Real Urban Traffic (LIFE10 ENV/CZ/651) Czech Science Foundation project BIOTOX - Mechanisms of toxicity of biofuel particulate emissions (13-01438S). Equipment and lawn provided by the authors EU-EBRD program, project CZ.1.07/2.3.00/30.0034, Support of Research Teams at Czech Technical University in Prague. operation using simple on-board (or off-board) monitoring systems. ERMES 2014, Sept. 17, Graz 37