SOLAR-POWERED UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES
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1 SOLAR-POWERED UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES Kitt C. Reinhardt, Thomas R. Lamp, and Jack W. Geis Aero Propulsion and Power Directorate Wright Laboratory Wright Patterson AFB, OH , Fax: Anthony J. Colozza Aerospace Technology Department NYMA Corporation 2001 Aerospace Parkway Brookpark, OH , Fax: ABSTRACT An analysis was performed to determine the impact of various power system components and mission requirements on the size of solar-powered high altitude long endurance (HALE)-type aircraft. The HALE unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) has good potential for use in many military and civil applications. The primary power system components considered in this study were photovoltaic (PV) modules for power generation and regenerative fuel cells for energy storage. The impact of relevant component performance on UAV size and capability were considered; including PV module efficiency and mass, power electronics efficiency, and fuel cell specific energy. Mission parameters such as time of year, flight altitude, flight latitude, and payload mass and power were also varied to determine impact on UAV size. The aircraft analysis method used determines the required aircraft wing aspect ratio, wing area, and total mass based on maximum endurance or minimum required power calculations. The results indicate that the capacity of the energy storage system employed, fuel cells in our analysis, greatly impacts aircraft size, whereas the impact of PV module efficiency and mass is much less important. It was concluded that an energy storage specific energy (total system) of Whr/kg is required to enable most useful missions, and that PV cells with efficincies greater than -12% are suitable for use. INTRODUCTION The ability to fly nonstop for extended periods of time at very high altitudes has been an ongoing goal of the aeronautics community. The characteristics of such an aircraft would allow it to perform a variety of missions for a host of possible users. Potential missions include military reconnaissance, civil border patrol, environmental and weather monitoring, traffic control, and a wide variety of civil communication applications. The aircraft desired would surely be unmanned, and capable of continuous operation for weeks, months, or even years. This type of UAV would be capable of performing many of the tasks that small low earth orbit satellites presently perform, but at a substantially reduced cost. Due to the long endurance needs and high altitudes at which these aircraft will be required to fly (20 km or higher), the method of propulsion is the major design factor in constructing the aircraft. An attractive method of supplying power for this type of aircraft is using solar photovoltaic modules coupled with an energy storage system. The main advantage of employing this all-electric approach over others, such as open cycle combustion engines or air breathing fuel cells, is that it eliminates the need to carry fuel and to extract and compress air at the oxygen-lean high altitudes. Further, for use in military applications, electrically powered aircraft will have a very small thermal signature which is useful in avoiding detection. The concept of electrically powered aircraft has been around for a number of years, and various propulsion concepts for UAVs have been investigated. In the 1970s, NASA studied the concept of a nuclear powered UAV; in the early 1980s DARPA developed high energy batteries and fuel cells for an electrically propelled UAV; and in the early 1990s the Air Force also began to develop interest in solar-powered UAVs. In the 1980s, analysis showed that the performance of state-of-the-art strong and lightweight airframe, energy storage, and photovoltaic cell technologies could not satisfy the demands of a solar-powered UAV. However, with the recent advent of advanced composite materials for airframe construction, high efficiency motors and propellers for propulsion, improvements in energy storage, and lightweight photovoltaic cells for power generation, the feasibility of a long endurance solar-powered UAV is approaching reality. The following analysis was performed to determine the impact of power system component performance and mission requirements on the feasibility of a solar-powered UAV. It's primary intent is to provide insight into the remaining power system deficiencies that currently limit solar-powered UAVs /16 $ IEEE
2 ANALYSIS The method of analysis is based on the work performed by NASA Langley Research center and Lockheed Missiles and Space Company on the high altitude powered platform (HAPP), and NASA Lewis Research Center (Hall et al., 1983; Youngblood and Taley, 1984; Colozza, 1994). In order for a solar powered aircraft to be capable of continuous flight, enough energy must be collected by the photovoltaic array to charge the energy storage system for propulsion at night, while providing sufficient power for propulsion during the day. To determine the amount of solar power available to the aircraft, we consider the energy balance diagram shown in Figure TIME (HR) FIGURE 1 ENERGY BALANCE DIAGRAM This diagram depicts the solar power (PSJ produced by the photovoltaic cells per unit area (S), PJS, as a function of time (Colozza, 1994). The Psc/S curve is a function of PV cell efficiency, altitude, location, and time of year. The area under the P,,/S curve represents the total power collected over a 24 hr period used for propulsion during day and night hours. The area under the PsJS curve and above the P,JS value, denoted AN, is the energy generated during daylight hours that can be used to power the aircraft during the night. The energy required for aircraft propulsion during the night is shown as A, resulting in the energy balance relation ANqes = 2A,, where qes is the energy storage system efficiency. A value for P,,,/S is obtained from the diagram using geometric arguments, and represents the output power per unit wing area (S,) available to fly the aircraft and run any necessary equipment. Aircraft power requirements based on aircraft mass and flight altitude are then determined considering the power conservation equation, where Preq is the power required for level flight obtained using the velocity for minimum power or maximum endurance [Colozza, 19941, Pres is the power required for aircraft climbing and maneuvering, and Ppay is the payload power. Expressions for Preq and P,,, can be obtained for a particular airframe type in terms of aircraft total mass (m,,,), wingspan (B), and aspect ratio (AR). Hence, the value of P,,/S obtained from the energy balance diagram can be expressed as a function of m,,, AR, and B. In order to eliminate one of these variable, an expression for mtot is determined in terms of AR and B; where m, consists of mass contributions from the airframe, engine and propeller, photovoltaic cells, energy storage, and power conditioning and control electronics. The airframe considered in this analysis is illustrated below in Figure 2. FIGURE 2 DUAL-BOOM AIRFRAME This airframe is the dual-boom, dual-rudder design previously studied under the HAPP program in the mid 1980s. It is a gliderstyle airframe, and was selected for analysis because it offers enhanced structural stability for the very large wingspans required for this type of aircraft. The propulsion and power systems selected are shown in Figure 3, and consists of an electric motor, and gear box and propeller for propulsion, and photovoltaic modules and fuel cells for power generation and storage, respectively. In this analysis it is assumed that the PV modules are mounted only on the main wing of the aircraft and that the packing factor is 100%. SOLAR ARRAYS PMAD liliil iii FIGURE 3 PROPULSION AND POWER SYSTEM By representing the power and mass equations in terms of wing area and aspect ratio, Equation 1 can be solved iteratively to determine aircraft dimensions and characteristics to fly at a selected time of year and altitude. The resulting analysis generates wingspan vs. wing aspect ratio curves that represent maximum endurance (or minimum power) points for the specified aircraft system configuration and mission requirements. ANALYSIS INPUT PARAMETERS The impact of photovoltaic module conversion efficiency and mass, energy storage (fuel cell) efficiency and specific energy, and mission characteristics; flight altitude, flight latitude, date, and payload power and mass, was determined using the following input parameters: 42
3 ~~ Photovoltaic Modules: Air Mass Zero Specific PV module specific mass has a greater impact on wing size than module efficiency, e.g., the lighter 10% thin film and heavier Efficiency (%) Mass (kg/m2) 15% Si modules yielded nearly equal wingspans, and also the Thin Film CuInGaSe, lighter 18% module yielded a wingspan 13 ft shorter than did the Si(110pm) heavier 18% module. GaAs (105 pm) GaAs (70 um) GaInP,/GaAs (70 pm) Values used for module specific mass were based on the flexible photovoltaic module fabrication process employed on the Pathfinder solar-plane (Carey et al., 1994); using 90 g/m2 for interconnects and diodes, 178 g/m2 for module laminant and adhesive, 12 g/m2 for module/wing adhesive, and a PV cell packing factor of Values for photovoltaic cell thickness and mass were based on projections resulting from on-going Air Force photovoltaic cell programs (Reinhardt, 1996) and the thin 1 lopm Si photovoltaic cells flown on the Pathfinder UAV. 66 g64 m (A 58 z MODUL 3 (KGIMZ Fuel Cell I Electrolyzer Efficiency: 67% 50 System: Specific Energy: Whrlkg Power Conditioning & Control Electronics: ASPECT RATIO, AR Efficiency: 90-99% FIGURE 4 WINGSPAN vs ASPECT RATIO FOR Mission Characteristics: Flight Altitude: km VARIOUS PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE DESIGNS Flight Latitude: 0-40 ON Flight Date: 3/22,6/22, 9/22, 12/22 y Payload Mass: kg Payload Power: W Other Parameters: Samarium Electric Motors: Efficiency = 90%, kglw Si-electronics efficiency: 93% ANALYSIS Results for the following analysis can be separated into two categories; the first considers the impact of varying the power system components, the second considers the impact of varying mission requirements. Solutions to the maximum endurance calculations were plotted as wingspan vs aspect ratio and wingspan vs fuel cell specific energy curves. Aircraft design points below the plotted curves represent an aircraft system configuration not capable of collecting enough energy during the day to fly continuously for 24 hours, whereas any design point on or above the curve can provide a continuous flight capability In Figure 5 we analyze the impact of PV module performance on wingspan vs fuel cell specific energy for a fixed wing aspect ratio of 25. A value of 25 was selected based on practical design considerations, and will be used for the remainder of analysis; a larger aspect ratio would compromise airframe structural integrity. Figure 5 shows the dramatic affect of fuel cell specific E 9 85 d fn 75 0 z Impact of Photovoltaic Modules The impact of PV module efficiency and specific mass on UAV wingspan vs. aspect ratio is shown in Figure 4. Values used for power system performance and mission scenario are indicated, i.e., fuel cell specific mass is 400 Whrlkg, payload mass and power are 50 kg and 50 W, and the date is June 22. The plots indicate two trends; 1) For fixed aspect ratio, only a modest reduction in wingspan results with increased module efficiency, e.g., an increase in module efficiency from 10% to 24% and 18% to 24% reduces the wingspan by only - 20 ft and 2 ft, respectively (the reason for this will be explained later), and 2) O3d3O20 38% SPECIFIC ENERGY (W-HR/KG) FIGURE 5 WINGSPAN vs FUEL CELL SPECIFIC ENERGY energy on wingspan and, in comparison, the relatively marginal impact of PV module performance. Considering the l8%, kg/m2 Si module, we see a very strong dependence of wingspan on fuel cell specific energy, where a specific energy of at least 43
4 Impact of Altitude The next series of figures pertain to the impact of desired UAV mission and payload requirements. The flight altitude range that encompasses the majority of reconnaissance, scientific, and environmental missions of interest is between 20 and 30 km. The effect of mission altitude on aircraft wingspan is illustrated in Figure 7, which shows a significant increase in wingspan with increasing altitude. This is due to the decrease in air density that occurs with increasing altitude, having the effect of reducing the wing lift for a given wing velocity. Since wing lift is proportional to aircraft wing area and the square of velocity, and there is little design latitude for increasing aircraft velocity due to minimum power (maximum endurance) and propulsion system mass arguments, the wing area must increase to compensate for the reduced air density. As a consequence, Figure 7 shows that to maintain an acceptable wingspan at high altitudes, significantly higher values of fuel cell specific energy are required, and that operation above 28 km may be impossible. It is noted that Figure 7 represents a best case scenario, where the baseline latitude of 40"N and date of June 22 offers the maximum available period of daylight. We next consider the impact of latitude and date on aircraft wingspan CONDITIONS: F. CELL EFF.= 0.67, AR = 25. I 140 h 120 E $ 100 a (I) F 60,?,-, FC EFF. = 0.67, 300 Whrlkg, JUN 22. LAT=40N, LOAD. 100KG. 50W. 20KM SPECIFIC ENERGY (WHRIKG) FIGURE 7 IMPACT OF ALTITUDE ON UAV WINGSPAN 5 a 11' " AM0 PV CELL EFFICIENCY (%) FIGURE 6 UAV WINGSPAN vs PV MODULE EFFICIENCY Impact of Latitude and Season The time of year (date) and latitude at which the UAV operates determines the charge/discharge time available for solar energy storage and the total amount of solar power available for propulsion. In general, the lower the available solar energy per wing area, the larger the wing area must be to generate sufficient power to propel the airframe and energy storage mass (airframe and energy storage comprise -70% of mtot). Figure 8 shows the impact of date and season on aircraft wingspan versus fuel cell specific energy. On the summer solstice, June 22, the longest period of sunshine and shortest period of eclipse occurs, resulting in the lowest demand for energy storage. Consequently, the small energy storage mass drives the wingspan to a minimum. Conversely, on December 22, the winter solstice, the shortest sunshine and longest eclipse periods occurs, which substantially 44
5 increases the size and mass of the energy storage system, resulting in the largest wingspan. December 22 represents the worst case scenario, and any aircraft power system/mission configuration feasible on this day will be capable of operation throughout the year. The impact of operation during the March and September equinox is also shown. As illustrated in Figure 8, the effects of latitude must also be considered, which shows while operation may be feasible in the lower latitudes in December, it is not possible at latitudes greater than - 20 N. From this data it is concluded that a fairly significant reduction in aircraft size can be obtained by restricting the time of year that the aircraft is required to fly at the different latitudes. It is also concluded that a fuel cell energy storage specific energy between 250 to 400 Whr/kg is required to enable most missions between mid February to mid October. Z (0 aq 110 c3 $ 90 FC EFF. = 0.67, AR = 25, LOAD: 50W.50KG ALT=POKM, PV MODULE:18%,0.485 KG/M2 A 22MARlSEP 2?_L!N - In the above cases, silicon(si)-based electronics were used having an efficiency of 93%. Depending on the operating conditions, state-of-the-art Si power devices, i.e., diodes, MOSFETs, IGBTs, etc., and power conditioning and control circuits, i.e., converterhnverter circuits, can have efficiencies in the range of 90-93%. Next generation wide-bandgap electronics using semiconductors such as silicon carbide (Sic) show excellent potential for yielding power devices with efficiencies approaching 99%. These electronics have enormous potential in military and commercial aircraft, ground vehicle, and utility applications. The impact of higher efficiency electronics on UAV aircraft size is shown in Figure 10. An increase in electronics efficiency from 90% to 99% was found to reduce the wingspan by only 18 ft for a specific energy of 300 Whr/kg. However, increased PMAD efficiency will lessen energy storage requirements necessary to enable sufficiently small wingspans. 150 CONDITIONS PV MODULE 18% KG/M*, FC EFF = 0 67,AR = I 25, JUNE 22, LAT=40N. ALT=ZOKM FT 250 FT SPECIFIC ENERGY (WHRIKG) FIGURE 8 IMPACT OF FLIGHT LATITUDE AND SEASON ON UAV WINGSPAN Impact of Payload Mass and Power Payload mass and power needed to support the various missions also effects aircraft wingspan. The impact of payload mass and power on the required fuel cell specific energy needed to maintain a wingspan less than 250 ft is shown in Figure 9. As expected the impact of payload mass on aircraft size is significant; greater values for fuel cell specific energy are required to support the larger payloads. Therefore, any reduction in payload mass, such as through the use of lightweight, low power, miniature satellite instrumentdequipment, will be very important. Also, although not shown, it was found that moderate increases in payload power have a very small effect on aircraft size. This is reasonable since payload power, which is on the order of hundreds of watts, is significantly less than the power required to fly the aircraft, which is typically kw. Imoact of Power Conditioning and Control Electronics For the sake of completeness, the effect of electronics efficiency was also examined. Electronics are necessary for PV power conditioning, charging/discharging the energy storage system, and switching power to the electric motors used for propulsion SPECIFIC ENERGY (WHRIKG) FIGURE 9 IMPACT OF PAYLOAD MASS AND POWER 110 ] FC EFF=0.67. AR=25; ALT= 20KM, LAT=CON. 22JUNE. LOAD: 50KG.50W FUEL CELL SPECIFIC ENERGY (WHRIKG) FIGURE 10 IMPACT OF POWER CONDITIONING AND CONTROL ELECTRONICS EFFICIENCY ON WINGSPAN I 45
6 DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY The following tables summarize pertinent results found in the above analysis. Table 1 shows the impact of PV module efficiency and mass on UAV aircraft wingspan. The effect of increasing PV module efficiency from 10% to 24% (with nearly same specific mass) reduces the wingspan by only 19 ft. Reducing the specific mass of the 18% PV module from kg/m2 to kg/m2 reduces the wingspan by only 13 ft. Similarly, Table 1 shows that increasing the power conditioning and control electronics efficiency from 90% to 99% reduces the wingspan by only 18ft. Thus, the impact of using advancednextgeneration PV module and conditioningicontrol electronics over existing technology components will offer a reduction in wingspan of only -20 ft! RESULTS FOR: 22JUNE. AR=25 LAT=40. ALT=20KM1 FS:4OOW HIKG PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULES: EFF(%l (KG/M2) WS(FT PV MODULE : 18% KGIMZ E LE C TR 0 N IC S EFF. (%I WS (FT TABLE 1 IMPACT OF PV MODULE AND POWER ELECTRONICS PERFORMANCE ON UAV WINGSPAN When the cost associated with different PV module technologies is considered, shown in Table 2 below (Reinhardt, 1996), it is apparent that the thin-film technologies represent an attractive candidate for solar-powered UAV use. The cost-perwatts values shown are for PV cells only and do not include the cost of module fabrication. 22 JUNE, 20 KM, 40N LAT, AR = 25, FC EFF = 0 67,400 WHlKG UAV POWER SOLAR REQUIRED WlNG TOTAL MODULE COSTWATT SPAN COST THIN FILM $3 5 - $5/W FT $100K lo%, KG/M2 (potenhally $1 5 /w) THIN SI $1OO/W FT $22M PATHFINDER 15%, KG/M2 THIN GaAs or GaAslGe $500 I W FT $90M ie% o 3-0 Q KGIM* GalnPZGaAs $500-$lOOO/W FT $80M 24%, KG/M2 (use $500) TABLE 2 DIFFERENT PV CELL TECHNOLOGIES vs COST The dramatic impact of energy storage specific energy (using fuel cells in this analysis) on UAV wingspan is summarized in Table 3 for the mission conditions indicated. The data shows that under ideal conditions (on June 22), an energy storage specific energy of at least 250 Whrikg is required to enable a wingspan of less than 250 ft, and that a capacity of 400 Whr/kg is necessary to reduce the wingspan to under 200 ft. As indicated in Figures 8 and 9, values for specific energy in excess of 500 Whr/kg are required to enable UAV operation at high altitudes and during some winter months. 22JUNE, 20KM, 40N LAT, AR=25. FC EFF.=0.67 ENERGY STORAGE DATA ES = ENERGY STORAGE, WS =WINGSPAN SOLAR 18%, 18%, 24%, MODULE KG/M KG/M KG/MZ ES WH/KG WS(FT) WS(FT) WS(FT) TABLE 3 SUMMARY OF FUEL CELL ENERGY STORAGE CAPACITY VERSUS UAV WINGSPAN CONCLUSIONS Results of this study showed the impact of power system component performance and mission conditions on UAV aircraft size. The most significant reduction in aircraft size was found to occur by increasing the energy storage (fuel cells in this case) specific energy, whereas the effects of PV module and power electronics efficiency and mass play a marginal role in comparison. Flight altitude, flight latitude, time of year, and payload mass also play significant roles in determining aircraft size. It was found that an energy storage specific energy of Whr/kg is required to enable most useful missions, and that operation in the winter at northern latitudes may not be possible. Also, it is concluded that PV cells with AM0 efficiencies greater than - 12%, possibly even thin-film PV cells, are suitable for solar-powered UAV use. REFERENCES Carey, P.G., Aceves, R.C., Colella, N.J., Sinton, R.A., and Glenn, G.S., A Solar Module Fabrication Process for HALE %b%r Electric Vehicles, Proceedings of 1 st World Conference on Photovoltaics and Energy Conversion, p. 1963, Hawaii1994. Colozza, A.J., Effect of Power System Technology and Mission Requirements on High Altitude Long Duration Aircraft, NASA Contractor Report , Hall, D.W., Fortenbach, C.D., Dimiceli, E.V. and Parks, R.W., A Preliminary Study of Solar Powered Aircraft and Associated Power trains, Lockheed Missiles and Space Company Inc., NASA Contractor Report 3699, Reinhardt, K.C., Feasibility of Solar-Powered Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs): Impact of Photovoltaics, Energy Storage and PMAD, Aerospace Power Division (WL/POOC-2), Air Force Wright Laboratory, internal study and report, Youngblood, J.W. and Taley, TA., Design of Long-Endurance Unmanned Airplanes Incorporating Solar and Fuel Cell Propulsion, AIAA , June
PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER FOR LONG ENDURANCE UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES
PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER FOR LONG ENDURANCE UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLES Thomas R. Lamp Aero Propulsion and Power Directorate Wright Laboratory Wright Patterson AFB, OH 45433-7251 937-255-6235, Fax: 937-656-4781
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