Notes on Soot Measurement of Diesel Engines Wolfgang Schindler Wolfgang Singer AVL List GmbH, Graz, Austria
Why bother about Soot Measurement? HC Oil cond. HC Fuel cond. Soot C Water Metal & Others Gravimetric measurement of total particulate mass after partial-flow or full-flow dilution The measurement of Soot is a widely accepted method in Engine R&D since several decades. It provides information about the quality of the combustion process PMP has decided that agglomeration mode particles should be counted - Such particles typically consist of soot in Diesel exhaust There is some evidence that soot is more relevant with regard to health concerns than the homogeneous, volatile Nanoparticles Soot measurement of Diesel engines 2004.-08-17 Page 2
Properties of Soot from Diesel Engines Soot is a combustion product. ( Carbon black is no soot ). Soot consists of Carbonaceus Particles Soot has a combustion temperature in air of >450 C, it is not volatile or liquid. (compare the measuring proposal of PMP) The size is mainly in the agglomeration mode range, the structure irregular (fractal dimension 1.8 to 2.5) Soot is really black Soot measurement of Diesel engines 2004.-08-17 Page 3
Methods for Diesel Soot Measurement Mass ext. coeff R (m2/g) 1.E+01 1.E+00 Mass extinction with Lamda= 560 nm 1.E-01 1.E-02 typical mean size of Diesel particulate Scatter Extinktion 10 100 1000 Diameter (nm) Analysis of filtered Diesel Particulates chem. extraction thermogravimetry Coulometry PMP method: Thermodesorption and particle counting Via its optical properties: The mass extinction coefficient of Soot is nearly constant for D < 100 nm The scattering coefficient goes with D/λ -4 Soot measurement of Diesel engines 2004.-08-17 Page 4
How well can various systems measure Soot Mass? Ash SO -- 4 HC Carbon C Filter Gravimetry FSN Photoacoustic Sensor Opacity Smoke Meter Opacimeter Criteria: accuracy - selectivity - measuring artefacts concentration: resolution, detection limit dynamic range repeatability, reproducibility time resolution Target: to assess the physical limits of various methods and the practical problems encountered when measuring Diesel Soot. Soot measurement of Diesel engines 2004.-08-17 Page 5
Filter Smoke Number (FSN) Measurement current engines futüre FSN 0 1 2 3 4 5 Advantages: Simple method, proven reliability, widely used in R&D Selectivity: for soot content >15%, FSN is clearly related to Soot concentration Detection limit: with high sampling volume 20 µg/m 3 or 0,002 FSN achievable dynamic range > 1: 10000 (concentration) Repeatability: 5% achievable (see below) Challenges: Due to the simplicity of the method it is often used uncritically without observing the basic principles of particle measurement. A realistic theory of the relation between FSN and Soot concentration does not exist Drawback: time resolution >10 sec by principle Soot measurement of Diesel engines 2004.-08-17 Page 6
FSN measurement: Challenges Influences to FSN Measurement: Sample Conditioning. FSN is measured from the raw exhaust concentrations are high, particle deposition is of considerable concern. Hangup after measurement of large FSN: purging is required to avoid re-entrainment during white level determination ( <2 µg allowed!) Filter paper: if two different filter papers, at opposite ends of the ISO 10054 specification band are used, results may vary by >20%. (AVL makes a special paper check to guarantee ± 5%). Soot content: in aerosols with a very small soot core (<15% by mass) the absorption coefficient is increased 0.12 0.10 FSN 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.00 FSN reproducibility ESC, Euro 5 HD engine ESC 251 ESC 250 ESC 234 ESC 235 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 mode 11 12 13 If measurements are carried out carefully, even the emissions of a Euro 5 HD engine can be measured reproducibly. Soot measurement of Diesel engines 2004.-08-17 Page 7
Opacity Measurement Advantages: Good time resolution, 0.1 sec Theoretically well defined ( for fixed R) Detection limit: k = 0.002 m -1 corresponding to 300 µg/m 3 (sufficient for non-trap engines) Challenges: To achieve a stable Zero value I 0 The mass extinction coefficient R of soot is slightly size dependent (typical uncertainty ± 20%) The influence of NO 2 on the signal is substantial, the influence of HC and SO 4 only at high concentrations Drawback: At the current stage the technology is at its limits Soot measurement of Diesel engines 2004.-08-17 Page 8
Challenges for good Opacity Sensitivity I/ I 0 = e -k. L = ( 1 - N/100 ) N [%] Opacity k [m -1 ] Absorption Good resolution in k is achieved if: I 0 is stable The measuring length L is large To some extent the two requirements contradict each other: % U(Det) 4.5 2.0-0.5 U(Det) Änderung mit Gas-ein T y = 0.0547x + 0.5119-20 30 80 T(Zelle) - T(Gas-ein) hot hot cold If the temperature of gas and chamber walls are not stable, the thermal lens ( mirage effect ) changes I 0 Temperature changes of 1.5 C result in an I 0 change of 0.1% Soot measurement of Diesel engines 2004.-08-17 Page 9
k-wert 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 Accuracy - is Opacity related to Soot? In other words: is k (m -1 ) = R Conz (mg/m 3 ) with konstant R? FSN_Opazitätskorrelation y = 0.0043x + 0.0403 0,7 BMW Werte Prüfstand 13 0.0 0,6 0 50 0,5 100 150 200 mg/m3 aus FSN N (%) 0,4 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,0-0,1 Comparison of Partial and Full-flow Opacimeters Prüfstand 4 to Smoke values FSN < 0.1 MAN Werte Linear (BMW Werte) Partial Flow 430 mm Full-flow, 6 inch Quantities influencing R: Particulate size. Particulate composition: (HC and SO 4 ) Practical experience: A constant (± 20%) relation between Opacity and Soot is given if: NO 2 concentration is < 100ppm The particulates consist to less than 50% of HC and SO 4 The exhaust temperature in the measuring chamber is 100 C The particle size is in the typical Diesel exhaust accumulation mode 0 0,02 0,04 0,06 FSN 0,08 0,1 0,12 range The Particulate size dependence of R decreases with increasing λ -> IR extinction (drawback: R decrease with increasing wavelength) Soot measurement of Diesel engines 2004.-08-17 Page 10
How about light Scattering? I 0 I s I S = Fkt( ϑ, ϕ, d/λ, n, ff) I S d -6 with n = m+ik, ff = form faktor In Principle: The measurement of I s at different ϑ, ϕ and at different λ can yield a wealth of information about size, size distribution, number, shape... In Practice: Single particle scattering: with reasonable effort the lower size limit is 100 nm due to low scattering intensity. Multi particle scattering: large particles dominate the Signal. Multi-wavelength and -angle scattering: the addition of measuring uncertainties introduces ambiguities into the data evaluation. A robust and accepted light scattering instrument has not made its way to the market despite substantial and repeated effort in the last 20 years Soot measurement of Diesel engines 2004.-08-17 Page 11
Photoacoustics - AVL Micro Soot Sensor Periodic heating by a modulated laser beam and subsequent cooling generates an acoustic signal that is detected by a microphone Detector microphone Soot particle Modulated laser beam Acoustic wave Modulated heating Modulated expansion Advantages: Sensor is directly sensitive to soot concentration high sensitivity (detection limit < 10 µg/m³) Challanges: signal evaluation at low concentrations repeatability / reproducibility / calibration currently for diluted exhaust only Soot measurement of Diesel engines 2004.-08-17 Page 12
Accuracy: Selectivity, Linearity and Comparability Selectivity: No cross-sensitivity from typical or untypical exhaust gases, if the proper near IR Laser wavelength is used (H 2 O, HC, SO 4, NO 2...). AVL483 / g km-1 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.00 Comparability of Photoacoustics with Gravimetry y = 0.9773x - 6E-05 R 2 = 0.9914 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 PM soot mass / g km-1 Courtesey V. Scheer, FFA Research & Advanced Engineering Linearity: Due to the physical principle the signal is linear with soot concentration Comparability: According to experience in various laboratories the signal is comparable to the soot determined with gravimetric soot mass determination Soot measurement of Diesel engines 2004.-08-17 Page 13
Reproducibility, Repeatability, Calibration Reproducibility: The near IR frequency of the laser used guarantees, that D/λ is small for typical Diesel particulates. Therefore the mass extiction coefficient R is nearly constant AVL483 / g km-1 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.00 Comparability of two Photoacoustic instruments (IWC Munich and AVL) y = 0.9912x + 0.0004 R 2 = 0.9963 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 PASS / g km-1 Courtesey V. Scheer, FFA Research & Advanced Engineering Repeatability: The experiments show that two photoacoustic systems of different build and different calibration methods show equal results Calibration: Calibration must be performed in comparison to gravimetric methods. However, the calibration factor in the PASS has not been changed in the last 2 years, and yields the same results as the AVL Micro Soot Sensor Soot measurement of Diesel engines 2004.-08-17 Page 14
Resolution (concentration, time) Signal (mv) 2000 µg/m3 1500 1000 500 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Photoacoustic Signal Evaluation filtered air, but dirty windows naiv phase sensitive 0.0 0.2 0.4 mg/m3 0.6 0.8 ETC 3 (without PM_KAT) and 5,6 (with PM_KAT) ETC 3 ETC 5 ETC 6 0 1200 1400 1600 time(s) 1800 Resolution: Challenges: Good resolution (below 10 µg/m 3 ) can be obtained by: Signal evaluation with high frequency selectivity Low noise in the gas path Correct signal evaluation, subtracting the baseline signal from sooted windows phase-corrected Dynamic range: Photoacoustics allows a dynamic range of 1: 10000 (important to detect peaks on low background Time resolution: 1 sec τ 90 is easily achievable, better time resolution currently sacrifices concentration detectivity Soot measurement of Diesel engines 2004.-08-17 Page 15
Laser Induced Incandescence (LII) High sensitivity for ultra-low emission good time resolution for transient testing In-situ raw exhaust gas measurement Exhaust pipe PMT Detector Laser Exhaust adapter ring Gas flow However: substantial costs, due to expensive laser serious laser hazards Soot measurement of Diesel engines 2004.-08-17 Page 16
Summary Mass ext. coeff R (m2/g) 1.E+01 1.E+00 Mass extinction with Lamda= 560 nm 1.E-01 1.E-02 typical mean size of Diesel particulate Scatter Extinktion 10 100 1000 Diameter (nm) Several Methods exist to measure Soot on the basis of its strong absorption coefficient. If these methods are used with attention and some basic knowledge about particulate measurement they can give reliable soot data even for very low soot concentration in the exhaust The method proposed by PMP for measuring particles seems feasible - the interlaboratory exercise has not yet started - but practically it measures only the soot fraction of the Diesel exhaust A second thought on mass-proportional soot measurement methods as a viable alternative seems appropriate. Soot measurement of Diesel engines 2004.-08-17 Page 17