white paper ULTRACAPACITORS FOR UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY (UPS) Electricity, flowing continuously through the grid, is something that most of today s amenities rely on. For any electrical device to operate correctly, the electrical energy supplied must meet specific voltage and frequency requirements. The power distribution system is intended to supply a sinusoidal voltage of fixed amplitude and frequency (commonly 50 Hz in Europe). The variations in voltage and frequency for European distribution system is set by Standard EN 50160 1 : power frequency must stay within ±1% of the rated value (49.5-50.5 Hz for 50 Hz grid) for 99.5% of the week and within 6%...4% (47-52 Hz) for 100% of the week; voltage magnitude variation must stay within ±10% of the nominal voltage for 95% of the week (mean 10 minutes rms values). In real life, the voltage sine-wave is always somewhat distorted due to various disturbances occurring in the system. Nevertheless, the world is increasingly dependent upon digital equipment, which in turn is very sensitive to electrical disturbances. Power outages as well as voltage disturbances, which lead to shutdown or malfunction of machines, do pose a potential threat for people at hospitals, health-care facilities, airports and other public places etc., but can also cause production losses for industry and various other problems by paralyzing information and communication technologies. Thus, there s a need for backup power supply. UPS technology In short, UPS is an electric device used to protect sensitive electrical equipment against power disruptions. While every UPS will provide power when utility power fails (in case of longer outages, supplying the power until a generator takes over), an on-line (or double-conversion) UPS system also controls and conditions the power quality, eliminating voltage sags and other disturbances. 2 Hence, an on-line UPS device will offer high quality and high availability of electrical energy for sensitive or equipment of critical importance. 1 Power Quality Application Guide, Voltage Disturbances, Standard EN 50160 (2004). 2 Neil Rasmussen, The Different Types of UPS Systems, White Paper, no. 1 (2003): 1 10. Page 1
A simple battery based on-line UPS device comprises four main components, including the rectifier, the inverter, the battery and the bypass. The rectifier has two functions to point out firstly, it draws the utility power from the grid and converts it from AC to DC for the inverter, and secondly, it charges the battery (or energy storage medium). The inverter regenerates high-quality AC power, eliminating all disturbances from the voltage sine-wave and allowing the power quality to meet much higher requirements (reducing voltage and frequency variations). And in the heart of a UPS system the battery. The battery is there to provide power in case of utility power failure; it is, however, the most vulnerable component of a UPS system. Finally, the static bypass switch, which connects the device to utility power in case of UPS internal failure or for the time of maintenance procedures. It will also ensure no-break transfer from one power source to the other. Power quality disturbances Poor power quality is generally associated with electricity that does not have the necessary characteristics. The deviation from required characteristics may occur in several forms. The most common forms of disturbances in power quality are listed in the table below. Disturbance Characteristics Possible causes Power outages Total absence of utility power Lightning, accidents (line breaks etc.), faults, natural disasters Voltage sags Voltage spikes Overvoltage Short-term reduction of voltage rms value below 90% of the rated value. Short high voltage spike, well over nominal voltage value Increase in voltage for up to few days Lightning, load fluctuations, startup of large loads, short circuits Lightning strike close by Utility switching or rapid decrease in power loads (shutdown of high-power loads) Undervoltage Drop in voltage for up to few days Rapid consumption increase (due heavy loads), exceeding supply capacity Frequency fluctuations Instability of the frequency Regulation (e.g. loading and unloading) or abnormal operation of generators Harmonic distortions Distortion of the normal voltage sine-wave Motors, transformers (due to their magnetic core) and switch-mode power supplies Possible consequences of power quality fluctuations include loss of data, corruption of data, shutdown of machines, temperature rise, stress on equipment, destruction of the equipment, interrupted production or even safety risk for people - all of which must be avoided. Page 2
Batteries in UPS The device or system that UPS uses as a backup for the primary energy source, must be able to provide power immediately. It also has to provide sufficient power rating and backup time for the load. There are different solutions used, for example flywheels, fuel cells, and batteries. Batteries are by far the most common solution. Controversially, batteries have many disadvantages for being used in UPS systems, for example, the failure of UPS batteries is the Number 1 reason for unplanned downtime in data centers. 3 They are, however, still used because of their low cost and storage capacity. Unlike batteries used in vehicles, electronic devices or other applications, batteries in UPS systems are used very infrequently, leaving them idle most of the time. However, if UPS batteries are used, they are discharged very rapidly at high current. Even though the long periods of waiting are rather suitable for the batteries and they can provide enough power for the required period of time, there are several disadvantages considering maintenance, size, and environmental aspects, which leave room for alternative solutions. The disadvantages of using batteries in UPS systems as a backup power source are, for example, their bulkiness and weight - batteries for typical UPS system can weigh up to 10 tons. Also, while they are claimed to be maintenance free, they need frequent inspections for the connections, corrosion, etc., which can be quite costly. Furthermore, batteries must be replaced after 3-5 years, and because of the sheer number of them within a UPS system it has to be taken into consideration in any budget. The lifetime of batteries can be reduced even more when the plant experiences hot (or low) temperatures. Another aspect not to be ignored is the disposal process of expired batteries. Batteries contain toxic chemicals and must be disposed according to the local regulations. In any case, it usually includes some kind of a fee. There may be a possibility of selling the batteries to recycling companies, however, the freight cost of toxic/hazardous cargo can still outweigh the value. An overview of the advantages and disadvantages of using batteries in the UPS system are presented on the graph below. Advantages and disadvantages of batteries in the UPS system. 3 Addressing the Leading Root Causes of Downtime: Technology Investments and Best Practices for Assuring Data Center Availability (Emerson Network Power, n.d.), accessed February 19, 2017. Page 3
Ultracapacitor-based UPS systems Ultracapacitors are energy storage devices, which similarly to typical capacitors store energy electrostatically. Ultracapacitors, however, offer much higher energy density compared to typical capacitors due to the porous carbon electrodes, which have significantly larger surface area and allow very small distance between the charges. Batteries, much more widely known energy storage devices, store energy through chemical reactions fundamentally different from ultracapacitors. While batteries still provide higher energy density when compared to ultracapacitors, the power density remains remarkably lower. Ultracapacitors possess many advantages, which make them attractive to use in UPS systems. Following paragraphs are going to explain these advantages and compare an ultracapacitor-based UPS to a battery-based one. Firstly, are the backup power providing capabilities of ultracapacitor-based UPS the same as battery-based systems? They answer is a bit tricky. Most importantly, yes, they both provide enough backup power for most applications. Yet, batteries can provide power for much longer periods (even hours). Though it may sound like an advantage, there is actually no need for such long backup times as almost all power failures are rather short, lasting less than a minute. Batterybased systems are typically oversized, contributing to their larger size, heavier weight and associated complications. That leads us to one of the ultracapacitor advantages they are much smaller and lighter than typical lead-acid batteries. Furthermore, any ultracapacitor-based UPS is designed for harsh industrial environment, solving most of the battery-based UPS problems: need for certain environmental conditions, maintenance procedures, monitoring, and relatively short lifetime. Because of the fundamental nature of ultracapacitors, and the energy storage processes, they offer almost unlimited cycle life, and are not as affected by temperature swings as batteries. This contributes to the longer lifetimes of ultracapacitors (~10 years) compared to batteries (1-5 years) and excellent performance in both low and high temperatures (operating temperature 40 +65 C). While ultracapacitors require practically no maintenance, they can also be monitored remotely from a laptop or mobile device. In terms of cost even though ultracapacitors are much more expensive initially, very low maintenance costs and long lifetime (no need for replacements) will pay off eventually and bring down the cost of total ownership when compared to batteries. Ultracapacitors eliminate batteries from UPS systems and by doing so, they eliminate the No. 1 reason for downtime. In fact, batteries are the main reason of UPS failures. Ultracapacitor-based UPS systems are therefore ideal for datacenters, IT, medical and industrial applications for covering the short duration outages and the generator start-up times in case of longer outages. They can also be used for power quality control. Page 4
Ultracapacitor-based UPS economic benefits For a clear overview of possible economic benefits of choosing one technology over the other, proper total cost of ownership (TCO) evaluation must be done. However, specific numbers cannot be generalized as they depend on the size, location, and exact requirements for the UPS. Total costs can be separated into two groups: initial costs for equipment (capital costs) and operating costs for maintenance, monitoring, etc. Capital expenses include the UPS system itself, the cooling system, the physical space for the UPS, and the installation procedure. These are all onetime costs required to get the system operational. Operating expenses entail power consumption, maintenance, and any replacements necessary (e.g. battery replacement costs). Comparing different technologies, i.e., batteries, flywheels and ultracapacitors, the UPS device itself is the cheapest when packed with batteries. Ultracapacitors are the more expensive from an initial investment point of view, however, ultracapacitor-based UPS requires only minimal amount of maintenance during 15 years of its lifetime. The TCO for battery-based UPS is the highest in the end of the 15 years period, mainly because of the very high replacement costs, but also due to higher maintenance and floor space (due to their size) costs. Flywheels are not far from ultracapacitors in terms of cost, however, they do need regular maintenance, which raises the TCO. In brief, the 15-year TCO for ultracapacitor-based UPS is relatively low, even though the initial cost is somewhat higher compared to other technologies. Advantages and disadvantages of ultracapacitors in the UPS system. Page 5
Conclusion Ultracapacitor-based UPS are a relatively new alternative to the battery-based UPS systems. Ultracapacitors are ideal devices for covering short power outages, which do not last more than a minute as most outages do. The key advantages come from: 1. ultracapacitors itself the whole system is a lot smaller, lighter, and doesn t contain any toxic chemicals leading to complications when recycling, 2. almost unlimited lifetime ultracapacitors do not need replacements or any specific maintenance during a 15-year period, cutting down the costs, and 3. a wider range of operating temperature, which means requirements are not as demanding for the cooling system, as well as better compatibility with harsh conditions. All in all, ultracapacitors eliminate the main reason behind UPS failures batteries increasing its reliability remarkably. Page 6