Henry Ford (July 30, 1863 - April 7, 1947) Have you ever heard of a car called the Ford? I bet you know someone who has one like the Explorer, Windstar, Expedition, Contour, Mustang, or Tempo. Those are some of the cars that Henry Ford s company created. Have you ever wanted to know how it all started or some other interesting facts? Henry Ford was born in Dearborn, Michigan on July 30, 1863. His mom died at an early age. His dad s name was William Ford. Henry Ford had been raised on a farm and disliked farm life! When Henry was 15 he went to Detroit and trained as a machinist. After that in 1888 he married Clara Bryant. They had one son named Edsel who was born November 6, 1893. Henry began to experiment with carriages without horses. In 1890 he invented the Quadricycle. He wanted to invent affordable cars so that not only rich people could buy them, but also average people. He tried to build cars so they would not cost too much. He was able to do it by inventing the assembly line. The assembly line helped Henry produce more cars faster which made them cheaper. In 1903 Ford helped establish the Ford Motor Company, and from 19061919 he served as president as well as in 1943-1945. His whole family worked for the company and the development of the automotive industry. Henry named his cars with letters from the alphabet. They were called the Model A or Model T, but the Model T was the most famous. It was often called Tin Lizzie or the Flivver. The Model T was developed in 1908. It was a four cylinder 20-horsepower car. The demand was high, but the supply was low. The car was really popular! The higher the demand got the more they made, and the price for the car decreased. In 1908 the Model T cost about $850 and by 1925 it was only $290. The Model T finally succumbed to a shift in public taste for more sophisticated and attractively styled cars. In September of 1917, Henry Ford II was born. He became president of the company right after his dad in 1945. Unlike his father, Henry the II went to college at Yale University. Henry the II retired between 1979-1980. Until this day the Ford company still manufactures cars in Detroit. It expanded to own Jaguar and Volvo. Members of the Ford family still work in the automotive industry. Source: Adapted from http://library.thinkquest.org/5847/ford.htm 29
Fig. 5: A 1922 Tin Lizzy 2. Read the following encyclopedia extract and work in pairs to find the following information. Name at least three of the flight engineer s duties during flight. What is the purpose of a three-man flight deck on western aircraft? Where does the flight engineer sit on the P-3 Orion and C-130H aircraft? The flight engineer s duties Flight engineers monitor, set and adjust engine power during take off, climb, cruise and go-arounds, or any time the pilot requests the flight engineer to set a specific power setting during descent and approach. Flight engineers also set and monitor the following systems during flight: pressurization, fuel, air conditioning, hydraulic, and electrical systems. Flight engineers are also responsible for preflight and postflight aircraft inspections. On aircraft where the flight engineer s station is located on the same flight deck just after the two pilots (all western three-man deck aircraft), they also monitor aircraft flight path and crosscheck pilot selections. On some military aircraft the flight engineer sits behind the pilot and co-pilot in the cockpit, facing sideways to operate a panel of gauges and indicators; on the Tupolev Tu-134, the flight engineer sits in the nose of the aircraft. On western civilian and military aircraft, the flight engineer sits between and 30
slightly aft of the pilots for take off and landings (P-3 Orion, C-130H); the flight engineer s chair can travel forward, aft and it can swivel laterally 90 degrees: this enables him to face forward and set the engine power, move aft and rotate sideways to monitor his systems panel. The flight engineer is the aircraft systems expert onboard and responsible for troubleshooting and suggesting solutions to in-flight emergencies and abnormal technical conditions, as well as computing takeoff and landing data. The basic philosophy of a three-man flight deck on western aircraft, should an abnormality or emergency arise, is as follows: the captain hands over the actual flying of the aircraft to the copilot, then the captain and flight engineer together review and carry out the necessary actions required to contain and rectify the problem. This spreads the workload and ensures a system of cross checking which maximizes safety. The captain is the manager and decision maker, the copilot does the flying, the flight engineer reads the checklists and executes actions required under the auspices of the captain. It can be argued that a three-man flight deck is inherently safer than modern two-man flight decks when there is a malfunction. Whether this argument is true must be weighed in terms of the actions that are required to recover from an in-flight abnormality or emergency. Source: Adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/flight_engineer 31
Engine theory Heat engines Reading 1. Read the text below which provides general information about the efficiency of heat engines and find words which mean the following. 1. The amount of energy or power produced by an engine.. 2. The energy supplied to a machine or engine.. 3. The relationship between the amount of the useful power output and a given amount of heat energy input.. 4. A device that is used to raise, compress, or transfer liquids or gases and that is operated by a piston or similar mechanism.. 5. A series of actions directed toward a specific aim.. Heat engine efficiency A heat engine absorbs heat energy from the high temperature heat source, converting part of it to useful work and delivering the rest to the cold 55
temperature heat sink. In general, the efficiency of a given heat transfer process (whether it is a refrigerator, a heat pump or an engine) is defined informally by the ratio of what you get to what you put in. In the case of an engine, one desires to extract work and puts in a heat transfer. The theoretical maximum efficiency of any heat engine depends only on the temperatures it operates between. This efficiency is usually derived using an ideal imaginary heat engine such as the Carnot heat engine, although other engines using different cycles can also attain maximum efficiency. Nevertheless, at an empirical level, no engine has ever been shown to run at a greater efficiency than a Carnot cycle heat engine. 2. Using the definitions and the information provided in the diagram that follows, complete the text below about the function of the valves. Notes: Cam: A rotating disk shaped to convert circular into linear motion. Camshaft: A shaft that has one or more cams attached. Push rod: A rod in an overhead-valve engine that is part of the linkage used to open and close the valves. Rocker: A pivoted lever that transmits motion from a cam or push rod at one end to open and close a valve at the other. Tappet: A lever that transfers motion from a cam to a valve or push rod. Valve collar: Any of various ring-like devices used to limit or secure a valve. Valve seat: The fixed 56
surface on which a valve rests or against which it presses. Valve stem: A rod attached to a valve, for moving it. The valves The function of the valves is to open and close at the correct time when the engine is running so that fuel can enter the cylinder and the exhaust gases escape. The valve illustrated above is an inlet valve. It is fitted into the 1...... Fuel from the 2...... enters the 3........ through it. The 4......... is ground so that it fits the 5........ exactly, forming a gas-tight seal. The 6........ slides through a 7......... which is a sleeve of bronze tapered at one end so that it can be driven tightly into the cylinder-head. The inlet valve is kept closed by means of a 8........ The ends of the spring are held between two 9........ One collar is set in the cylinder head while the upper collar is attached to the valve stem. The valve is opened at the right moment by means of a 10......... mounted on a 11...... This shaft is driven by the engine crankshaft. As the cam turns it pushes up the 12....... which in turn raises one end of the 13........ The other end presses down on the valve stem and the valve opens. A small screw, called the 14........, is provided at one end of the rocker to allow slight adjustments to be made in the proportion of the lift from the cam being imparted to the valve. 57
1. 8. 2. 9. 3. 10. 4. 11. 5. 12. 6. 13. 7. 14. 3. Below are six images illustrating the four-stroke cycle of the piston in a petrol engine. Label them using a) the words in the box and b) the information provided in the text that follows. 1. 58 2. 3.
4. a. compression stroke b. power stroke 5. c. intake stroke d. starting position 6. e. exhaust stroke f. ignition of fuel The four-stroke cycle Today internal combustion engines in cars, trucks, motorcycles, aircraft, construction machinery and many others, most commonly use a four-stroke cycle. The four strokes refer to intake, compression, combustion (power) and exhaust strokes that occur during two crankshaft rotations per working cycle of the Gasoline engine and Diesel engine. A four-stroke engine is characterized by four strokes, or reciprocating movements of a piston in a cylinder: 1. intake (induction) stroke, 2. compression stroke, 3. power stroke, 4, exhaust stroke. The cycle begins at top dead center, when the piston is furthest away from the axis of the crankshaft. On the intake or induction stroke of the piston, the piston descends from the top of the cylinder, reducing the pressure inside the cylinder. A mixture of fuel and air is forced (by atmospheric or greater pressure) into the cylinder through the intake (inlet) port. The intake (inlet) valve (or valves) then close(s), and the compression stroke compresses the fuel air mixture. 59
The air fuel mixture is then ignited near the end of the compression stroke, usually by a spark plug (for a gasoline or Otto cycle engine) or by the heat and pressure of compression (for a Diesel cycle or compression ignition engine). The resulting pressure of burning gases pushes the piston through the power stroke. In the exhaust stroke, the piston pushes the products of combustion from the cylinder through an exhaust valve or valves. Source: Adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/four-stroke_cycle Vocabulary 1. Circle the words that are closest in meaning to the definitions provided. 1. In most types of reciprocating engines, a.. is provided for each poppet valve in the cylinder head. It consists of a tube-shaped piece of metal, pressed into the cylinder head, with the valve reciprocating inside it. a. valve collar b. valve stem c. valve guide 2. A.. is that part of a rocker arm which makes contact with an intake or exhaust valve stem above the cylinder head of an internal combustion engine. As the cam rotates, it creates both a sideways and a downward force on the... Without it (and the cam acting directly on the valve) the sideways force would cause the valve stem to bend. With a.. the sideways force is transferred to the cylinder head so only the downward force acts on the valve stem. a. valve spring b. tappet c. valve collar 3. In an internal combustion engine, the.. sits atop the cylinders and consists of a platform containing part of the combustion chamber and the location of the valves and spark plugs. a. cylinder head 60 b. piston head c. cam
4. The.. is a critical component of an engine. If it is improperly positioned, oriented, or formed during manufacture, valve leakage will occur which will adversely affect the engine compression ratio and therefore the engine efficiency, performance (horsepower), exhaust emissions, and engine life. a. valve seat b. valve spring c. valve guide 5. Heat engines are sealed machines using pistons within.. to transfer energy from a heat source to a colder reservoir, often using steam or another gas as the working substance.. a. valves b. camshafts c. cylinders 2. Complete the sentences with an appropriate form of the words in capital letters. 1. Due to the oil crisis, many American consumers today are seeking ways.. the engine of their car to run on alternative fuels. CONVERSION 2. In a race car crash, it is the driver himself who.. the energy produced by the impact. ABSORBING 3. Many tests are usually.. by engineers in order to improve the efficiency of gasoline engines. PERFORMANCE 4. Hybrid vehicles include among other parts a completely separate gasoline engine.. a generator. POWER 61