Cooled EGR and alternative fuels Solutions for improved fuel economy

Cooled EGR and alternative fuels Solutions for improved fuel economy Dr. Terry Alger November, 2007 Engine, Emissions and Vehicle Research Division Southwest Research Institute

Motivation and Market Forces Emissions standards have been getting more strict on an approximately 4 year cycle HD standards are less strict, but getting tighter quickly Light duty standards are already fairly strict, but there is always potential for further reductions New concerns regarding global climate change and energy security have resulted in a renewed focus on fuel economy Customers are concerned about fuel consumption Cost of gasoline is getting higher Social aspects CO 2 regulation increasing High mileage vehicles offer a significant marketing opportunity 2

The Route to High Efficiency Gasoline engines have the potential to be intrinsically more efficient than diesel engines Otto cycle has significantly higher ideal efficiencies than Diesel cycle In the real world gasoline engines suffer from some drawbacks Pumping losses Emissions standards require TWC and a fixed A/F ratio throttle is required Knock Limits compression ratio Spark retard to combat knock severely reduces efficiency Spark retard also increases exhaust temperatures Requires overfuelling Engine cannot meet emissions at high load 2 routes to high efficiency: 1. Downsize and boost at normal compression ratio 2. Increase compression ratio and maintain or increase displacement 3

A Solution for High Efficiency Reduce or eliminate pumping losses Use cam phasing and/or hot EGR at low load to increase internal residual Reduce engine displacement Requires higher manifold pressures for the same torque as the larger engine Increase compression ratio Better thermal efficiency Boost to increase specific power Overcomes small displacement Improved marginal efficiencies Ignition and flame propagation difficult Increased exhaust temperatures require overfuelling KNOCK 4

Overcoming Obstacles to High Efficiency Advanced ignition systems Improve EGR tolerance Increase knock tolerance Cooled EGR Reduces knock Combustion phasing improves for high efficiency Enables high CR and/or loads Reduces exhaust temperatures More effective dilution than overfuelling Combustion phasing improvement also helps with combustion temperatures Change the chemical composition of the charge H 2 reformer Alternative fuels 5

Improving ignitability Top systems to date: Dual fine electrode spark plugs High energy, long duration spark systems Fine Iridium Electrode HT losses Required breakdown voltage Large Gap HT losses Quenching Required breakdown voltage Flow Coupling EMI Long Duration / Multiple Sparks Probability of ignition Flow coupling Initial flame volume Knock tendency Effect of cylinder pressure on spark event Higher Energy Levels Flame kernel volume Secondary currents Proportional heat losses Spark blow-out Durability(?) 6

Ignition System Improvement at Low Loads Very low loads present challenges to ignition with EGR High levels of incylinder residual Relatively cooler temperatures Residual Hot EGR Engine surfaces MS System V2.1 has the best EGR tolerance Best low load EGR tolerance Burn duration and stability very good CoV IMEP [%] 8 6 4 2 0 Stock System MS system V1.0 MS System V1.1 MS System V2.0 MS System V2.1 2000 rpm / 2 bar bmep 2.4-L engine @ 9:1 CR 0 5 10 15 20 EGR [%] 7

0-50% MFB Duration [deg] 90 80 70 60 50 40 Burn rate improvement with new ignition Stock System MS system V1.0 MS system V2.0 MS system V1.1 MS system V2.1 2000 rpm / 2 bar bmep 2.4-L engine @ 9:1 CR 3500 rpm / 9.6 bar bmep 0 5 10 15 20 25 EGR [Vol %] 90 80 70 60 50 40 0-50% MFB Duration [deg] MS system V2.1 results in faster burn rates at high and low load EGR tolerance improves Emissions and FE improve Knock resistance improves Level of improvement would be greater for engines with higher levels of bulk motion MS V2.1 may be able to tolerate higher levels of bulk motion than other systems 8

High Load Performance Ignition challenges at high load are different Spark blow out / suppression EMI Pre-ignition MS V2.1 improves EGR tolerance at high load and reduces knock tendency Stock System MS system V1.0 MS System V1.1 MS System V2.0 MS System V2.1 2.4-L engine @ 9:1 CR 250 240 230 16 220 BSFC [g/kwh] 20% EGR suppresses knock Engine runs at or near MBT timing Burn rate improvement significant WOT fuel economy good despite low CR BMEP [bar] 14 12 10 8 6 20% EGR Peak loads limited by turbocharger 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 Engine Speed [rpm] 9

Improving ignition (non-igniter hardware) Many other parameters can be adjusted to improve ignition Increase coolant temperature Hotter temperatures at compression EGR mitigates knock Increase compression ratio Higher compression temperatures EGR reduces knock Also improves efficiency Change composition of the intake charge H 2 supplementation has significant potential Only small amounts required for benefit (SAE paper 2007-01-0475) 10

H 2 Amount and the Effect on Engine Stability Very small amount of H 2 necessary to stabilize engine < 1 mg of H 2 stabilizes engine at most test conditions (~ 5% of gasoline mass) Benefits of H 2 addition rapidly fall off at levels > 0.2 % by volume At high CR and high load, knock limits the benefit until high H 2 levels reached H 2 appears to improve stability through increased burn rates and more complete combustion CoV of imep [%] 10 8 6 4 2 0 11:1 CR; 3.1 bar imep (22% EGR) 11:1 CR; 5.5 bar imep (28% EGR) 14:1 CR; 3.1 bar imep (32% EGR) 14:1 CR; 5.5 bar imep (26% EGR) 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Volume % H 2 0.75-L engine Results from SAE Paper 2007-01-0475 11

The Influence of H 2 on Turbulent Burn Rate Effect of H 2 seen in 10-90% MFB duration and spark advance Biggest impact seen with initial H 2 addition H 2 improves apparent flame speeds Larger flammability limits Higher laminar burning velocities Reduced quench distances 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 Spark Advance [deg btdc] 10-90% MFB Duration [deg] 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 H 2 [vol %] 0.75-L engine 3.1 bar imep, 11:1 CR, 22% EGR Results from SAE Paper 2007-01-0475 12

The Influence of H 2 on Emissions HC emissions reduced considerably H 2 addition promotes post-flame consumption of HC Crevice emissions reduced due to shorter wall quench distances Flame propagation improved due to improved flammability limits NO x emissions increase Hotter flame temperatures due to faster flame speeds Still significantly reduced from no EGR case Percent change (0% H 2 = 100%) 160 ISHC ISNO 0.75-L engine 140 120 100 80 60 40 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 H 2 [vol %] 3.1 bar imep, 11:1 CR, 22% EGR Results from SAE Paper 2007-01-0475 13

The Influence of H 2 on EGR Tolerance H 2 constant at 1% by volume EGR tolerance increased significantly Benefit largest at low load EGR tolerance lower without H 2 at this load Engine still very knock limited at high loads and high CR No boost WOT condition stops EGR sweep Best results in multicylinder engine found at 40-50% EGR CoV of IMEP [%] 11:1 CR; 3.1 bar imep 14:1 CR; 3.1 bar imep 11:1 CR; 5.5 bar imep 14:1 CR; 5.5 bar imep 10 8 6 4 2 0 EGR Limited by WOT Stability Limit 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 EGR % Results from SAE Paper 2007-01-0475 14

Ignition Improvement Options Advanced igniter and coil designs pay big dividend Best MS system yielded a 100% improvement in EGR tolerance Changing fuel composition also works well Small amounts of H 2 can significantly improve performance Emissions and fuel consumption are reduced Engine stability improves Low mass of H 2 makes reformer technology more easily packaged and less energy consumptive Ethanol will improve knock tolerance Other techniques are proving to have some benefits Increasing manifold temperatures works well High CR and coolant temperatures also help 15

Cooled EGR for Knock Reduction Boosted gasoline engines are knock limited above 12-14 bar bmep (or less) Significant spark retard required to prevent knock Excess fuel required to reduce exhaust temperatures Cooled EGR can reduce knock tendency Restore optimal combustion phasing Allows stoichiometric combustion Enables aggressive downsizing ( > 25%) for US market Degrees after TDC 20 15 10 5 0-5 -10-15 0 5 10 15 20 25 40 30 20 10 0-10 -20 Spark Advance CA 50% MFB BSFC [g/kwh] -30 0 5 10 15 20 25 EGR [%] Desired location of CA 50% MFB for MBT Low speed / high load conditions 2.4-L engine @ 10.5:1 CR 16 310 300 290 280 270 260 250 240 310 300 290 280 270 260 250 240

Cooled EGR for Reduced Exhaust Temperatures Pre-Turbine Temperature [deg C] 1100 1000 900 800 700 600 2000 rpm / 14 bar bmep 2000 rpm / 18 bar bmep 4000 rpm / 18 bar bmep 5500 rpm / 15 bar bmep 0 5 10 15 20 EGR [%] 1.6-L GDI engine (10.5:1 CR) All EGR conditions run at φ = 1.0 EGR reduces high load exhaust temperatures significantly Cost savings potential in Turbine materials Exhaust valve and seat materials Catalyst substrate Warranty exposure Also has the potential to reduce under-hood temperatures Less load on heat exchangers Increased ability to run at high loads in drive cycle Emssions compliance at high load realized Greater downsizing potential 17

Cooled EGR at High Speed / High Load Exhaust Temperature [deg C] 800 780 760 740 720 700 2.4-L engine @ 10.5:1 CR Temperature @ Phi = 1.0 BSFC @ Phi =1.0 Temperature @ Phi = 1.05 BSFC @ Phi = 1.05 0 5 10 15 20 25 EGR [%] 245 240 235 230 225 220 BSFC [g/kwh] BS emissions [g/kwh] 50 40 30 20 10 0-77% -65% 6% BSCO BSNO BSHC Fuel consumption reduced by 5-20% due to elimination of enrichment (depending on engine power and enrichment levels) Exhaust temperature reduced by ~100 deg C with EGR addition Emissions reduced significantly High load / WOT may now be a potential drive-cycle operating condition for a LD automotive application 18

Cooled EGR at Low Speed / High Loads At low speeds and high loads, enrichment is not typically an issue Despite high levels of spark retard, exhaust temperatures are not excessive Poor efficiency is due solely to spark retard due to knock EGR addition reduces knock Big change in BSFC BSCO and BSNO are reduced significantly 250 240 230 220 210 15 10 5 0 2.4-L engine @ 9.5:1 CR 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 EGR [%] BSFC [g/kwh] BSCO [g/kwh] BSNO [g/kwh] BSHC [g/kwh] 19

% decrease in BSFC 25 20 15 10 5 Potential BSFC improvement due to downsizing 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 Test Point Test Point Conditions 1 4400 rpm / 11 bar bmep 3 800 rpm / 7 bar bmep 4 1500 rpm / 1 bar bmep 5 1600 rpm / 2.4 bar bmep 6 2000 rpm / 2 bar bmep 7 2000 rpm / 5 bar bmep 8 3500 rpm / 7.5 bar bmep Downsizing Potential Hot EGR Cold EGR 10.5:1 CR BMEP values based on a 3 L engine (i.e. 11 bar bmep in a 3 L = 14 bar in the 2.4 L) Engine calibration will require a continuum of EGR temperatures for optimal performance Low speed, high BMEP operation enabled by knock reduction from EGR Shift vehicle operation window Diesel-like torque curve Future emissions standards will require compliance at high loads Enrichment region will be eliminated or very limited Downsizing Goal: Run FTP at > 10 bar bmep Idle @ 2-3 bar imep or 20 more

BMEP [bar] 10 8 6 4 2 0 Cooled EGR and High CR Operation Full Load Curve 39% BTE 35% BTE Peak load limited by NA operation 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 Engine Speed [rpm] High CR helps with EGR tolerance at low loads Hotter temperatures improve stability and flame speed Less internal residual 2.4-L engine @ 14:1 CR 250 240 230 220 210 200 BSFC [g/kwh] Friction losses increased significantly Problem worse at low loads and high speeds EGR reduces knock tendency enough to get near full load If external boost is applied, 10-11 bar is likely COV imep [%] 10-90% MFB Duration [deg] 10 8 6 4 2 0 80 60 40 20 0 10:1 CR 14:1 CR 1500 rpm / 1 bar bmep 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 EGR % 21

30 25 20 15 10 5 0 When do we use hot EGR? 2.4-L engine @ 9.0:1 CR Incomplete combustion loss [kw] CoV imep [%] BSCO [g/kwh] BSNO [g/kwh] BSHC [g/kwh] Heat Lost to Exhaust [kw] 5 10 15 20 25 EGR [%] 2500 rpm / 6.7 bar bmep HEGR CEGR 30 25 20 8 6 4 2 0 Hot / uncooled EGR is beneficial as long as knock does not occur Higher MAT increases EGR tolerance Higher MAT helps charge preparation CO emissions reduced over cooled EGR Higher MAT promotes more complete combustion Pre-heating intake air increases cycle efficiencies NO emissions increase slightly Still below baseline / 0% EGR levels Substantial CO reductions WHY? Exact cutoffs between when to use cooled or uncooled EGR TBD on engine-by-engine basis 22

CO emissions are lower with EGR in almost all applications With H-EGR, part of the reduction in CO emissions may come from improved vaporization / charge preparation At high loads, MAT is controlled by aftercooler No temperature differences between EGR condition and baseline conditions CO emissions still decrease Simulations using CEA code indicate that lower temperatures due to dilution result in less CO emissions Occurs with several diluent types Very strong temperature effect Lower temperatures reduce dissociation Unanticipated benefit of EGR use CO reductions with EGR CO 2 / CO ratio CO 2 / CO ratio 200 160 120 80 40 0 1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 50 40 30 20 10 0 25% dilution T 0 = 300 K T 0 = 500 K 15% dilution 10% dilution Flame Temperature [K] Diluent: N 2 (10% by volume) T 0 = 1000 K T 0 = 1500 K 2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 Flame Temperature [K] N 2 diluent CO 2 diluent 0% dilution 23

The Path to Fuel Economy: High CR versus High Load? Question: What is the most effective way to improve drive cycle efficiencies? High CR Offers theoretical advantages in thermodynamic cycle efficiency High load becomes difficult BSFC penalty due to spark retard is high Low load performance usually improved May be best for NA / low boost applications 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Pumping losses [% of BMEP] Friction Losses [% of BMEP] Location of 50% MFB [deg] 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 BMEP [bar] 2000 rpm 10%<EGR<20% 360 340 320 300 280 260 240 220 BSFC [g/kwh] BSFC [g/kwh] 292 290 288 286 284 282 280 278 276 274 14 16 18 20 22 24 Spark Advance [deg btdc] 24 2800 rpm 15 bar bmep 0% EGR E50 Fuel 2.0-L engine 11:1 CR MBT timing High Load Low CR (10<CR<12) with radical downsizing Allows MBT timing at very high loads Marginal efficiencies become very high Friction and pumping as a % of fuel energy 0 Reduces or eliminates low BMEP operation

Cooled EGR Cooled EGR improves fuel economy Knock reduction leads to improved combustion phasing Reduced fuel consumption Reduced exhaust temperatures Diluent effect of EGR reduces exhaust temperatures Reduces requirement for overfuelling Engine becomes emission compliant over entire performance map Cooled EGR helps with emissions CO and NO emissions reduced with lower combustion temperatures Ability to run stoichiometric over full performance map makes engine fully emissions compliant Cooled EGR with moderate compression ratio enables radical downsizing (> 40%) Efficiency benefits of EGR + Boost outweigh the benefits of very high compression ratio 25

HEDGE and ethanol EGR can further improve ethanol operation Further increase knock resistance Reduce pumping losses Hot EGR can increase MAT to help with fuel preparation issues Improved ignition system can benefit ethanol operation CS benefits With or without EGR Limited HEDGE technology can enable more efficient flex-fuel vehicles SwRI has applied for a patent under the HEDGE program Enable engine optimization for E100 / E85 fuel Protect for E0 operation with EGR Will also work for other alternative fuels Alternative Fuels EGR Percentage in Engine 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Ethanol Percetnage in Fuel 26

BMEP Limit Comparison (CR=11:1, Ф=1 ) Exceeded BMEP target with E50 and E85 without EGR Exceeded BMEP target with 100 RON + EGR BMEP target NOT met with 92 RON due to engine knock and combustion stability limits BMEP target was met with 92 RON + EGR + H 2 (60% increase) EGR alone extended knock limit by ~20% for gasoline fuels BMEP (bar) 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 Target From Baseline (CR=9:1) Knock & PTT Knock & PTT Knock & PTT NO EGR 17.2 Knock (MBT) 19.3 2800RPM Peak Cylinder Pressure (MBT) Knock & CoV IMEP Dilution Case 15.9 15.9 Max MAP & Knock & CoV Max MAP & Knock (MBT) EGR 92RON 92RON+H2 100RON E50 E85 EGR ~ 21% 27

BTE Comparison (CR=11:1, Ф=1 ) BTE for ethanol blends exceeded 38% 100 RON + EGR achieved target BMEP at 37.3% BTE NOTE: The amount of fuel required to make the H 2 was accounted for in BTE and BSFC comparisons Assumed an ideal fuel reformer 92 RON + EGR + H 2 achieved ~30% BTE Lower BTE due to retarded spark timing and losses due to reforming the fuel 92 RON + EGR operated at > 35%, but not at target BMEP Enrichment may be used to increase knock limited BMEP BTE (%) 45.0 40.0 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 38.3 39.0 NO EGR 2800RPM 29.6 37.3 EGR 92RON 92RON+H2 100RON E50 E85 Dilution Case 28

Comparison to Baseline Baseline Data CR=9:1 Turbocharged WOT To meet target BMEP Spark retard for knock Ф > 1 due to PTT limit Test Data CR=11:1 Supercharged WOT To meet target BMEP Spark retard for knock Ф held to 1 Equivalence Ratio BMEP (bar) 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1.60 1.40 1.20 1.00 0.80 E85 E85+EGR 100RON+EGR 92RON+EGR+H2 92RON Cr=9:1 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 Engine Speed (rpm) 29

Comparison to Baseline E85 + EGR was 9% higher than baseline even though the LHV of E85 was 25% lower than gasoline 92RON + EGR + H 2 improved fuel consumption by 8% 100RON + EGR improved fuel consumption by 19% Fuel consumption difference between 100RON and E85 was proportional to difference in LHV cbsfc (g/kw-hr) 380 360 340 320 300 280 260 240 220 200 E85 E85+EGR 100RON+EGR 92RON+EGR+H2 92RON Cr=9:1 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 Engine Speed (rpm) 30

Result with Ethanol and EGR Test engine could operate as an E85 flex fuel engine with CR = 11:1 Premium required EGR to meet target load Regular required EGR and H 2 addition to meet target load EGR improved fuel consumption and emissions with ethanol blended fuels Increasing CR and employing EGR improved engine performance and emissions compared to base engine operating on gasoline NO X and CO were significantly reduced Full load fuel consumption with regular gasoline was estimated to be 8% lower with EGR and H 2 Full load fuel consumption was only 9% higher with E85 (EGR, CR=11:1) than base engine (No EGR, CR=9:1) despite 25% lower LHV 31

Terry Alger 210-522-5505 talger@swri.org 32

Emissions Regulation History and Technology Solutions Turbocharging Intercooling High Pressure Injection Electronic Fuel Injection Improved Combustion & Retarded Timing EGR Systems High EGR, NOx Aftertreatment PM Traps U.S. Heavy-Duty On-Road Emissions Regulations Increasingly Difficult to Meet 33

Emissions Regulation History and Technology Solutions U.S. Light-Duty Emissions Regulations Toughest Anywhere Engine, Emissions and Vehicle Research Division Southwest Research Institute

Include Fuel Economy and the Problem is Clear http://www.sanantoniogasprices.com/retail_price_chart.aspx Fuel price is increasing and highly volatile 35

CO2 Review Europe CO2 Regulations Europe sets CO2 goals for near future 120 g/km maximum CO2 U.S. Supreme Court ruling U.S. EPA should consider CO2 Likely that CO2 regulation will occur in U.S. U.S. President reveals plan to pursue CO2 reduction Asks EPA and DOE to work together for CO2 reduction From SwRI Consulting Service Report: Climate change awareness is intensifying in the US. The recent Supreme Court decision ordering the EPA to take action to reduce GHG emissions from vehicles lags state actions which are already moving ahead with their own low-carbon vehicle rules, potentially leading to a GHG policy mess. To avoid that, the US president ordered EPA, the Department of Transportation, the Department of Energy and the Department of Agriculture to propose and finalize new regulations by the end of next year that would respond to the Supreme Court order. As a starting point for such new regulation, the president proposed a 20% cut in gasoline consumption by 2017, which would force 35 billion gallons of renewable and other fuels into the US motor fuel pool by 2017. According to an environmental law specialist, the mess involves regulation, litigation, and Congress trying to figure out GHG legislation and how the transportation sector fits in. According to him, the ideal solution would be for Congress to take action, eliminating states from the equation. (WRFT 23-05-07) 36