Lixin Fu Department of Environmental Science and Engineering Tsinghua University

Lixin Fu Department of Environmental Science and Engineering Tsinghua University

Contents

Contents

Vehicle Population Is Increasing Rapidly in Beijing By end of 2007, motor vehicle population reached over 3.0 million in Beijing Over the past two decades, the annual vehicle growth rate was as high as 15% Since 2000, the growth of vehicles has still maintained high, at 10% annually Beijing is the leading city in automobile market in China, contributing ~7% of national total automobile population (excluding motorcycle) Vehicle Populatioin in B eijing (te n th o u s a n d u n its ) 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Since Mid-1990 1990 s, Studies on Strategies for Controlling Vehicle Emissions Have Been Initiated at both National and City Level Timeline Stage 1~3 Premilitary stage: New vehicle standard In-use vehicle retrofit Fuel quality Stage 4~6 Development stage: New vehicle standard Alternaltive fuel vehicles I/M program Fuel quality Stage 7~14 Stringent stage: New vehicle standard High-emitter scrappage and restriction In-use vehicle management Fiscal incentive From 1999 to 2007, totally 13 stages of comprehensive measures for controlling air pollution in Beijing were implemented, among which, controlling vehicle emissions was one of the key actions Starting in 2008, the 14th stage of comprehensive measures is now in processing, which could further improve air quality in Beijing during the period of 08 Olympic Game

Since 1999, Beijing Has Been Pushing Hard in Emission Regulations on New Vehicles Before 1999, the vehicles sold in Beijing are primarily carburetor vehicles without after-treatment control. The technology level is ~15-20 years behind the developed countries When Beijing phased in Euro 1 in 1999, it was reduced to 7 years behind the European countries When Beijing pushed Euro 4 in effective in 2008, it was only 3 years behind the European countries The Effective Date of New Vehicle Emission Standards in Beijing Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3 Euro 4 LDV 01/01/1999 01/01/2003 12/30/2005 a 03/01/2008 a HDGV 01/01/2000 01/01/2004 12/30/2005 HDDV 01/01/2000 01/01/2003 12/30/2005 07/01/2008 b MC 01/01/2003 01/01/2004 a: Light-duty diesel cars and trucks are excluded b: Only effective for public -purpose HDDV, such as bus, mail/luggage van

Since 1999, Beijing Has Been Pushing Hard in Emission Regulations on New Vehicles(Cont (Cont d) Compared to Euro 0 carburetor vehicles, Euro IV new cars could reduce NO X by 92%, CO by 89%, and HC by 91% Step-by-step more stringent emission standards on new vehicles are considered as the most effective control measure in mitigating the impacts of increasing vehicle population R e la tiv e E m is s io n F a c to rs o f E u ro I-IV L D G V to E u ro 0 100 80 60 40 20 0 Euro 0 Euro I Euro II Euro III Euro IV CO HC N

Since 1999, Beijing Has Been Pushing Hard in Emission Regulations on New Vehicles(Cont (Cont d) Similarly, Euro IV heavy duty diesel trucks achieve significant emission reductions. For example, compared to Euro 0 HDDV, Euro IV HDDV could reduce PM by 96%, NO X by 75%, CO by 79%, and HC by 80% R elative E m ission Factors of E u ro I-V H D D V to E u ro 0 100 80 60 40 20 0 Euro 0 Euro I Euro II Euro III Euro IV Euro V PM NOx CO HC

Fuel Quality Is Keeping Improved to Follow the Request of New Vehicle Emission Regulations Lead in gasoline In 1997, Beijing phased out the leaded gasoline, which allowed the introduction of Euro I vehicles (Pb<0.013 g/l) in 1999 The investigation in 1998 indicated that the lead content in gasoline in Beijing market had reduced to 0.005 g/l Sulfur in diesel Sulfur content in diesel was firstly regulated nationwide to be lower than 2000 ppm in mid-1990 s (GB252-94) In 2004, the sulfur content in diesel was requested to be lower than 500 ppm in Beijing (DB11/239-2004) to allow the phase in of Euro III vehicles In 2008, the sulfur content in diesel was further reduced to be less than 50 ppm in Beijing (DB11/239-2007) to allow the phase in of Euro IV vehicles

Fuel Quality Is Keeping Improved to Follow the Request of New Vehicle Emission Regulations Sulfur in gasoline Sulfur content in gasoline was firstly requested nationwide to be lower than 800 ppm in mid-1990 s In 2004, the sulfur content in gasoline was regulated to be lower than 500 ppm in Beijing (DB11/238-2004) to allow the phase in of Euro III vehicles In 2008, the sulfur content in gasoline was further reduced to be less than 50 ppm in Beijing (DB11/238-2007) to allow the phase in of Euro IV vehicles Other contents in gasoline Benzene content in gasoline was limited from <2.5% (by volume) in 2004 to <1.0% in 2008 Olefin content in gasoline was limited from <30% (by volume) in 2004 to <25% in 2008 Aromatic hydrocarbon in gasoline was limited to <40% in 2004, then was revised to <60% for olefin+aromatic HC in 2008

Introduced to Keep The Emissions of In-Use Vehicles at Lower Level I/M programs for in-use vehicles Idle test was requested nationwide for gasoline vehicles in 1993 (GB 14761.5-93) In 1994, dual-idle test was introduced for vehicle fleet in Beijing (DB11/044-94), adding high idle speed(2000 rpm) In 1999, dual-idle test was expanded to include the new Euro I vehicles with different emission limits (DB11/044-99) In 2001, more stringent test method, acceleration simulation mode (ASM), was introduced for vehicle fleet in Beijing (DB11/122-2000) Based on new data, DB11/122-2000 was revised to better inspect in-use vehicles (DB11/122-2003) Other control measures for in-use vehicles Remote sensing was used to inspect on-road high-emission vehicles Scrapping high-mileage/high emission vehicles was requested, and was enhanced during this Olympic Year Heavy duty trucks were not allowed to drive into the downtown Beijing during the daytime

Alternative Fueled Vehicles Have Been Phased Into Bus/Taxi Fleet Since Late 1990 s Dedicated CNG buses has increased to 3750 by 2007, almost doubled since 2002. Beijing becomes the No. 1 city worldwide in CNG bus population Accordingly, Beijing has built 29 CNG fueling stations, with NG consumption ~80 million cubic meters for CNG buses in 2007 LPG has been introduced in Beijing Taxi fleet since late 1990 s. By 2003, there were 45 thousand flexible fueled taxi (LPG/Gasoline), accounting for 70% of total taxi population Alternative fueled vehicles could not only reduce tailpipe air pollutant emissions, but also mitigate the dependence of imported oil for China Dedicated CNG bus

Alternative Fueled Vehicles Have Been Phased Into Bus/Taxi Fleet Since Late 1990 s Bus Population in Beijing,1995-2008 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 1995 Total G a s o lin e D iesel CNG Ele c tric ity 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 D is p la c e d D ie s e l C o n s u m p tio n b y C N G, to n s 70000 60000 50000 40000 30000 20000 10000 0 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 NOX Emision Factor(g/mile) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 CNG Diesel LNG Diesel Case 1 Case 2 PM Emission Factor(g/mile) 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 CNG Diesel LNG Diesel Case 1 Case 2

Advanced Technology Vehicles Are Beijing Demoed in Beijing for Upcoming 2008 Olympic Games 10 diesel hybrid buses are being demonstrated in Beijing for the upcoming 2008 Olympic Games Hydrogen fuel-cell buses and pure electric buses are being demonstrated in Beijing for the upcoming 2008 Olympic Games, which are exactly zero tailpipe emission vehicles

Resources for Penetration of Advanced Technology Vehicles (e.g., PHEV and H 2 FCV) in Beijing Are Available The total amount of H 2 from COG in China in 2005 could fuel at least 10 million H 2 FCV cars COG Production NG Reserves Coal Reserves

Public Subway System in Beijing Has Been Expanded Quickly z By end of 2007, the public subway system reached 142 km in length in Beijing; and it will reach ~200 km in August 2008 z By end of 2015, the total subway length will reach ~560 km, which will enable Beijing becoming the No. 1 city worldwide in subway length

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Fleet Average Emission Factors Keep Decreasing Since Last Decade Compared to 1995, 2005 fleet average gasoline cars, light duty gasoline trucks 1, light duty gasoline trucks 2, heavy duty gasoline trucks, heavy duty diesel trucks and motorcycles reduce CO by 76%, 58%, 59%, 56%, 50%, and 37%, respectively Average C O em ission factors, g/km 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1995 2005 LDGV LDGT1 LDGT2 HDGV HDDV MC

Fleet Average Emission Factors Keep Decreasing Since Last Decade (Cont d) Compared to 1995, 2005 fleet average gasoline cars, light duty gasoline trucks 1, light duty gasoline trucks 2, heavy duty gasoline trucks, heavy duty diesel trucks and motorcycles reduce total HC by 68%, 73%, 71%, 67%, 41%, and 23%, respectively Average H C em ission factors, g/km 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1995 2005 LDGV LDGT1 LDGT2 HDGV HDDV MC

Fleet Average Emission Factors Keep Decreasing Since Last Decade (Cont d) Compared to 1995, 2005 fleet average gasoline cars, light duty gasoline trucks 1, light duty gasoline trucks 2, heavy duty gasoline trucks, heavy duty diesel trucks and motorcycles reduce NO X by 43%, 65%, 64%, 75%, 40%, and 56%, respectively Average N O X em ission factors, g/km 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 1995 2005 LDGV LDGT1 LDGT2 HDGV HDDV MC

Criteria Gaseous Emissions from On-road Vehicle Fleet in Beijing Maintained Roughly Unchanged Between 2005 and 1995 Although the vehicle population nearly tripled from 1995 to 2005, the air pollutant emissions from on-road vehicle fleet maintained roughly unchanged. Compared to 1995, CO and NO X emissions in 2005 increased by 7% and 28%, and total HC emissions in 2005 reduced by 10% C riteria G aseous Em issioins (ten thousand tons) 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 1995 2005 0 CO HC NOX

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Specific Control Measures were Implemented During the Period of 2008 Olympic Games Enhanced scrapping of high mileage/high emission vehicles is being implemented, for example, all the taxi in service in Beijing will meet at least Euro 3 emission standard before July 2008 For those vehicles registered outside of Beijing that could not meet Euro II emission standards, were not allowed to drive into Beijing during the period of Olympic Games 50% to 70% of total non-private vehicles (e.g., government-owned vehicles, military vehicles, etc.) in Beijing will stop to drive during the period of Olympic Games High emission private cars (e.g., Euro 0 cars) will not be allowed to drive and other private cars are encouraged to drive less during the period of Olympic Games Stop driving of up to 50% of Euro series private cars may be implemented if the meteorology condition is not good during the period of Olympic Games

Implementation of Specific Control Measures During Olympic Games Enable a Further Significant Reduction of Vehicular Activity Level Three key traffic control measures during 2008 Ban on yellow label vehicles Stop non-private vehicles Restriction of even-odd license plate number Activity level inside 6 th Ring Average traffic flow decreased 32%

Implementation of Specific Control Measures During Olympic Games Enable a Further Significant Reduction of Vehicular Activity Level Three key traffic control measures during 2008 Ban on yellow label vehicles Stop non-private vehicles Restriction of even-odd license plate number Average vehicle speed inside 6 th Ring 25 km/h increased to 37 km/h

Implementation of Specific Control Measures During Olympic Games Enable a Further Significant Reduction of Vehicular Emissions Different scenarios combining various specific control measures for the 2008 Olympic Games have been designed to enable a further significant reduction of vehicular emissions. For example, it could further reduce NO X by 50-60%, and PM by 20-30% compared to 2005 emissions depending on the strength of control scenarios Percentage of Air Pollutant Em issions in 2008 R elative to 2005 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% CO VOC NOX PM 10 PM 2.5 2005 2008: S1 2008: S2 2008: S3

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Exposure Reduction on Roadside Monitoring Period Stage Duration Measures I Apr-28 to May-3 Before special control measures II Jun-23 to Jul-4 Partial of special control measures implemented III Jul-28 to Aug-7 All of special control measures implemented IV Aug-8 to Aug-20 Olympic Games Exposure Reduction of Criteria Pollutant CO concentration 2.5 CO 2.0 NO2 NOx 1.5 PM2.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 I II III IV 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.00 NO2, NOx, PM2.5 concentration

Exposure Reduction on Roadside

Exposure Reduction on Roadside PM10 mass concentration on roadside of North 4 th Ring PM2.5 mass concentration on roadside of North 4 th Ring After the implementation of special control measures, the air quality in traffic environment improved significantly PM2.5 decreased 60% PM1 decreased 67%

Exposure Reduction on Roadside CO hourly concentration on roadside of North 4 th Ring 12.0 CO 时均值 10.0 二级标准时均值 CO (mg/m 3 ) 8.0 6.0 4.0 各阶段平均值 2.0 0.0 04-28 04-30 05-02 06-23 06-25 06-27 06-29 07-1 07-3 07-29 07-31 08-2 08-4 08-6 08-8 08-10 08-12 08-14 08-16 08-18 08-20 Duration Average (mg/m3) Reduction Ratio Max (mg/m3) Reduction Ratio of Max I: 0428-0503 2.082 4.130 II: 0623-0704 1.645 21% 3.871 6% III: 0728-0807 1.507 28% 3.940 5% IV: 0808-0820 0.763 63% 2.591 37%

Exposure Reduction on Roadside NO 2 hourly concentration on roadside of North 4 th Ring NO2 (mg/m3) 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 NO2 时均值二级标准时均值各阶段平均值一级标准时均值 0.05 0.00 04-28 04-30 05-02 06-23 06-25 06-27 06-29 07-1 07-3 07-29 07-31 08-2 08-4 08-6 08-8 08-10 08-12 08-14 08-16 08-18 08-20 Duration Average (mg/m3) Reduction Ratio Max (mg/m3) Reduction Ratio of Max Exceeding rate % I: 0428-0503 0.100 0.188 0% 33% II: 0623-0704 0.047 53% 0.127 32% 0.4% III: 0728-0807 0.041 59% 0.099 47% 0% IV: 0808-0820 0.025 75% 0.067 64% 0%

Exposure Reduction on Roadside NOx hourly concentration on roadside of North 4 th Ring 0.40 NOx (mg/m3) 0.35 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 NOx 时均值 各阶段平均值 0.00 04-28 04-30 05-02 06-23 06-25 06-27 06-29 07-1 07-3 07-29 07-31 08-2 08-4 08-6 08-8 08-10 08-12 08-14 08-16 08-18 08-20 Duration Average (mg/m3) Reduction Ratio Max (mg/m3) Reduction Ratio of Max I: 0428-0503 0.094 0.361 0% II: 0623-0704 0.062 34% 0.180 50% III: 0728-0807 0.057 39% 0.139 61% IV: 0808-0820 0.027 71% 0.080 78%

Exposure Reduction on Roadside Toxics "Good Luck Beijing" test events in 2007 Trimethylbenzene Xylene Ethylbenzene Toluene Benzene 56.28% 47.86% Before restriction After restriction 46.39% 44.85% 44.85% 0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 Concentration (μg/m 3 ) Wei, et al.(2007)

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Improvement of Ambient Air Quality in Beijing CO Concentration (mg/m 3 ) 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 Ambient Air Quality in Beijing from 2000 to 2007 NO2 PM10 CO 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 NO2 PM10 Concentration (mg/m 3 ) API in 2008 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1-Jan 1-Feb 1-Mar 1-Apr 1-May 1-Jun 1-Jul 1-Aug 1-Sep Air Pollution Index (API) of Beijing in 2008 (Jan~Sep)