2014-01-1581 Published 04/01/2014 Copyright 2014 SAE International doi:10.4271/2014-01-1581 saeeng.saejournals.org An Assessment of Emissions from Light-Duty Vehicles using PEMS and Chassis Dynamometer Testing John May, Dirk Bosteels, and Cecile Favre AECC ABSTRACT From 1 September 2014 new car types in the EU must meet Euro 6 emissions requirements. The New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) is currently the main test for this, but the European Commission intends to also introduce PEMS (Portable Emissions Measurement Systems)-based procedures to ensure that emissions are well controlled in real use. Random Cycles have also been considered and remain a possible option for real world particle number measurement. At the same time, the UN Working Party on Pollution and Energy (GRPE) has developed the new Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedure (WLTP) that is expected to be adopted in the EU in the near future. To identify and understand the differences in emissions that may arise between these various methodologies, AECC has conducted some initial tests on two modern light-duty vehicles. Chassis dynamometer emissions tests were conducted over the NEDC, the Common Artemis suite of test cycles (CADC), the new Worldwide Light-duty Test Cycle (WLTC - the test cycle for WLTP) and a set of cycles produced by a Random Cycle Generator based on short trip segments from the EU database used to construct WLTC. A Portable Emissions Measurement System (PEMS) was used to measure emissions during real driving over pre-selected routes. The test results show that there can be substantial differences for some pollutants measured as real driving emissions (RDE) using PEMS equipment, compared to the test cycles. CITATION: May, J., Bosteels, D., and Favre, C., "An Assessment of Emissions from Light-Duty Vehicles using PEMS and Chassis Dynamometer Testing," SAE Int. J. Engines 7(3):2014, doi:10.4271/2014-01-1581. INTRODUCTION The next stage of the European light-duty emissions regulations (Euro 6) will become mandatory for Type Approval of new car types on 1 September 2014 and 1 year later for all new car registrations (Note both dates are 1 year later for light commercial vehicles - all dates in this paper refer to the dates applicable to passenger cars, category M1). Following concerns over the real world performance of vehicles approved under previous stages of EU legislation [1] - in particular the NOx emissions of diesel light-duty vehicles - the European Commission has announced in its CARS 2020 Action Plan [2] its intention to include an additional test for Real Driving Emissions of Light-Duty Vehicles (RDE-LDV) from the start of Euro 6. At the time of writing, it is anticipated that, following the conclusions of a European Commission working group [3], this will take the form of on-road emissions measurements using Portable Emissions Measurement Systems (PEMS) for gaseous regulated emissions. For particulate mass and/or particle number emissions, EU Member States have stated their interest in applying the same RDE-LDV method to all pollutants, if appropriate and technically feasible. However, PEMS systems for light-duty PN measurement are at an earlier stage of development and so Random Cycles remains an option for this aspect. These RDE-LDV procedures are planned to be gradually implemented from 2014 onward, initially by inclusion of test procedures in the Euro 6 Regulation, with the introduction of Conformity Factors proposed from the Euro 6c stage starting in 2017. A further aspect of development is that although emissions limits have so far been set using the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) [4], the UN Working Party on Pollution and Energy (GRPE) has developed a Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Procedure (WLTP) [5] and associated cycle (Worldwide Light-duty Test Cycle; WLTC) that is expected to be adopted in the EU in the near future. It is expected that in the EU this cycle will be first required for CO 2 measurements, but is expected to also be available for pollutant measurement.
A further set of test cycles that is widely used in Europe is the Artemis suite (Common Artemis Driving Cycles; CADC) [6]. This incorporates more transient operating modes derived from real-world driving. It is not a legislative test cycle but is used as the basis of emissions factors determination for modelling of emissions in Member States that need to comply with European Air Quality legislation. AECC has previously conducted tests comparing the NEDC, CADC and WLTC [7] as part of the validation program for WLTP, but these tests did not include the RDE-LDV proposals. To identify and understand the differences in emissions that may arise between these new methodologies and between them and existing procedures, AECC therefore conducted some initial tests on two modern light-duty vehicles. The first of these was a Euro 5 gasoline vehicle and the second a Euro 6 diesel vehicle. The tests were all conducted by a single independent laboratory. TEST VEHICLES The two vehicles tested were normal production vehicles taken from the EU market. The gasoline vehicle was Type Approved to the Euro 5b standards and was registered in April 2012. It had a manual (6-speed) transmission and at the start of testing had covered 4000 km. The diesel vehicle was Type Approved to the Euro 6 standard and was registered in January 2012. It had an 8-speed automatic transmission and had covered 22 900 km at the start of the test program. A summary of key characteristics is shown in table 1. The NEDC tests were performed to the current regulatory standards and the WLTC tests to the draft WLTP procedures, both being cold start tests following a soak period. The final version of WLTP incorporates variations for vehicles with lower power-to-mass ratio and maximum speed (v max ). The cycle used for this test program was the 4-phase test (low-, medium-, high-, and extra high-speed phases) that is applicable to the typical European vehicles tested, with power to unladen mass ratio of > 34 W/kg and v max 120 km/h (WLTP Class 3b). The CADC tests, comprising an Urban, Extra-Urban and a Highway phase, were conducted as hot-start tests as is normally the case for CADC. In most uses, each of these three CADC phases includes portions at the start and end of the cycle in which the emissions are not sampled. However, as some authorities were understood to evaluate emissions over the whole cycle, this variant was used for all AECC test work. Three repeat tests were run for each of these cycles. For the Random Cycles, it was decided to test three different random cycles produced by the Random Cycle Generator to assess the degree of variability seen, rather than running 3 repeats of the same cycle to assess repeatability. The resultant cycles for the gasoline vehicle are shown in Figure 1 and those for the diesel vehicle in Figure 2. As may be seen from these two figures, there were substantial differences between the cycles in parameters such as maximum speed and the length of steady-state periods. Table 1. Main vehicle characteristics TEST CYCLES Figure 1. Random Cycles for the gasoline vehicle Chassis Dynamometer Tests Test Cycles Chassis dynamometer tests were conducted over four different cycles - the current legislative New European Driving Cycle (NEDC), the Common Artemis suite of test cycles (CADC), the new Worldwide harmonized Light vehicles Test Cycle (WLTC - the test cycle for WLTP) and a set of cycles produced by a Random Cycle Generator that was made available to the European Commission's working group on RDE-LDV. This produced cycles based on short trip segments from the EU database used to construct WLTC. Figure 2. Random Cycles for the diesel vehicle
Measurements of carbon monoxide (CO), total hydrocarbons (HC), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), particulate mass (PM) and particle numbers (PN) were made according to current regulatory standards set out in UN Regulation 83. Table 2. PEMS route characteristics - gasoline vehicle Inertia Masses One area of significant difference between the current (NEDC) test procedures and the WLTP is the calculation of road load and setting of the test (inertia) masses. For WLTP, the road load relevant characteristics of the vehicle including aerodynamic drag and tyre rolling resistance are taken into account, and, unlike the current procedures, the vehicle test mass for regulated pollutants has to include the mass of optional equipment. As a result, the test masses for WLTP will often be higher than that for the current regulatory test. For the gasoline vehicle, the resulting WLTP-based inertia mass was 1930 kg, compared to 1590 kg when using current procedures. For the diesel vehicle, the WLTP-based inertia mass was 2460 kg, compared to 2150 kg under current procedures. It was decided that all tests on the gasoline vehicle should be run at the higher (WLTP) inertia. However, to give a comparison with the current regulatory procedure, a single NEDC test was run at the lower inertia. When the diesel vehicle was to be tested, this approach was reconsidered. As a result the NEDC and CADC tests were run at the lower inertia weight, as this is what would normally be used in current testing. The WLTC and Random Cycle tests used the higher inertia as this is what would be expected for future test regimes. To provide a direct comparison of the effect of the two settings, an additional CADC test was run at the higher inertia setting. PEMS Testing A Portable Emissions Measurement System (PEMS) was used to measure emissions during real driving over pre-selected routes. The system comprised a Semtech-D (Sensors) system for measurement of CO, HC, NO, NO 2, CO 2 and O 2 together with an AVL photoacoustic Micro Soot Sensor. This sensor provides a measure of the soot content of particulate mass (PM) but not a measure of particle number (PN). At the time of testing PEMS equipment for measurement of PN was not available. The gasoline vehicle was tested first, in July 2012. 3 days of PEMS testing were conducted over a fixed route, with 4 tests per day, each lasting approximately 1 hour. The tests route comprised a total of 45.8 km, of which approximately 21 km was classified as city driving, approximately 9 km as rural and approximately 16 km as motorway. The maximum altitude reached was 260 m above sea level. In the three days of PEMS testing there were very different driving conditions, ranging from a fluid traffic flow to a total traffic jam. Key characteristics for the test are shown in Table 2. The vehicle was parked overnight in an unheated garage, and in each case the PEMS equipment was powered well before the engine to enable it to achieve stability. Measurement was started before the engine. The first test of each day could therefore be considered as cold start. Nevertheless, the results for the cold-start tests were not substantially different from those for the hot-start tests. For CO 2, NOx, NO 2, and CO, all results for the cold-start tests were within the range of those achieved on the hot-start tests. For soot, one of the three results was some 10% above the highest hot-start result, with the other two being within the range of hot-start results. For HC the cold-start results bracketed those from the hot-start tests, but all test results were very low (less than one third of the Type Approval limit). When the tests on the diesel vehicle were conducted, the guidance from the RDE-LDV group suggested that 2 different routes should be tested, one with a greater proportion of motorway driving, and that the eventual RDE requirements might be for cold-start PEMS tests. The tests on this vehicle therefore used the same route as for the gasoline vehicle for 3 tests plus a modified version of the route which gave a total length of approx. 52 km, with a split of approximately 16 km classified as city driving, 6 km as rural and 30 km as motorway. The same maximum altitude (260 m) was reached. For this series of tests, 2 cold-start tests per day were conducted. As with the gasoline car, the diesel vehicle was kept in an unheated garage between tests, the PEMS equipment was powered well before the engine to enable it to achieve stability, and measurement was started before the engine start. These tests were conducted in February 2013, so ambient temperatures were somewhat lower than for the gasoline vehicle testing period. Key characteristics for these tests are shown in Tables 3 and 4.
Table 3. PEMS route characteristics - diesel vehicle, route 1 very low result of 206 mg/km, whilst two tests gave results above the Euro 5/6 limit, at 1236 mg/km and 1085 mg/km. Examining the cumulative data on trip characteristics (those shown in Table 1) for the individual trips gives no specific insight into these differences. Both high results show peaks of CO emissions (up to 2000 mg/s) during the climb to maximum altitude, but this is also true of other trips. Further analysis of the second-by-second data indicates that the differences relate to λ variability during (and particularly at the start of) significant accelerations Table 4. PEMS route characteristics - diesel vehicle, route 2 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION All test results were recorded over the complete cycle or PEMS test run as appropriate. All the comparison graphs in this section shown the average results with the error bars indicating the range (max. and min. emissions). For the European Commission's work on RDE-LDV, three data analysis methods are under consideration. At the time of writing the Commission's working group is examining the feasibility and benefits of the three options. In addition, there may need to be some decisions on what the boundary conditions should be for the analysis procedures (e.g. exclusion of high acceleration rates or certain ambient conditions). As these decisions have not been reached at the time of writing, the results presented here are those obtained over the complete cycle. Gasoline Vehicle The CO and HC emissions of this vehicle, shown in Figures 3 and 4, were below the Euro 5 and Euro 6 limit on all tests, including the Random Cycles and the PEMS routes. Both CO and HC results were slightly higher for the NEDC tests at higher inertia than for the test at standard inertia, but remained well below the limit value. The HC emissions on the CADC tests were lower than all other tests, but this may well be attributable to the fact that CADC tests are hot-start The CO (but not HC) emissions were significantly higher during the PEMS tests than during the chassis dyno tests, but with significant variability for the PEMS results. The majority of PEMS trips produced CO emissions in the range of 500 to 900 mg/km (50 to 90% of the Euro 5/6 limit), but one trip gave a Figure 3. Comparison of CO emissions results, gasoline vehicle Figure 4. Comparison of HC emissions results, gasoline vehicle The NOx results were also slightly higher on the high-inertia NEDC tests than in the single test standard inertia as shown in Figure 5. The emissions over the CADC tests were very similar to the NEDC tests (an average of 20 mg/km on the CADC compared to 24 mg/km on the NEDC at the same inertia and 22 mg/km on the NEDC at current inertia). The results for the WLTC tests and the Random Cycles were both markedly higher than on the NEDC or CADC (33 mg/km for the WLTC and 35 mg/km for the Random Cycles), although these were still well within the Euro 5/6 limit of 60 mg/km.
implement a test method ensuring the effective limitation of the number of particles emitted by vehicles under real driving conditions. Table 5. PM results for gasoline vehicle. Figure 5. Comparison of NOx emissions results, gasoline vehicle The PEMS NOx results were significantly higher than the dynamometer cycles and higher than the Euro 5/6 limit value, the latter on average by some 23% (range 3 to +37%). Only one PEMS trip gave NOx emissions marginally below the limit, at 58.4 mg/km. The individual PEMS test results for NOx are shown in Figure 6. A number of studies have indicated that PN emissions from current direct injection gasoline vehicles are greater than the Euro 6c limit of 6 10 11 particles/km limit [9], [10], [11]. In most cases, they can, though, meet the interim limit of 6 10 12 particles/km. There is currently no PN limit for port Fuel Injection (PFI) vehicles in the EU but in most cases such vehicles emit PN at levels below 6 10 12 /km. The vehicle tested in this program uses a combination of direct injection and port fuel injection. PN emissions results for this vehicle are shown in Figure 7. Figure 6. NOx emissions over each PEMS trip (mg/km, full test). As might be expected for a gasoline-engined vehicles, all results for particulate mass (PM) measured on the chassis dyno tests were well below the Euro 5/6 limit value of 4.5 mg/ km As shown in Table 5, the highest result obtained was only 0.8 mg/km. It should be noted that the PEMS results relate to soot measurement using the photoacoustic sensor, rather than filter measurements of particulate mass, but good correlation has been shown between this measurement and the Black Carbon content of PM [8]. From Euro 6, direct injection gasoline vehicles will also have to meet a limit for particle number (PN) emissions. The limit value is to be 6 10 11 particles/km, the same as that for diesel vehicles, but for a period of three years (i.e. until 1 September 2017 for new Type Approvals, 1 September 2018 for all registrations) the manufacturer has the option to request approval to a limit of 6 10 12 particles/km. From this Euro 6c date, the European Commission also has the obligation to Figure 7. Comparison of particle number emissions, gasoline vehicle On the current (NEDC) test procedure the PN result was close to, but within, the EU's final 6 10 11 particles/km limit value. Interestingly, in the tests conducted using the NEDC but at the higher inertia, there was a greater margin, with the average emissions of the 3 tests being 3.7 10 11 /km with a small level of variability. Data are available for the NEDC separated into the first two urban cycles (ECE 1+2) which include the cold start, the second two urban cycles (ECE 3+4), giving a comparison of hot vs. cold emissions, and the extra-urban (EUDC) phase. The results of these indicate that the largest difference was seen in the EUDC phase, with average PN emissions of
4.5 10 11 /km in the standard test and 8.6 10 10 /km in the high inertia version, although results in ECE3+4 were also lower, but somewhat balanced by higher results in ECE1+2. For all cycles, the results were highest in cold-start phases, with all results on cold phases of all cycles being above 1 10 12 /km. This includes the result from a single cold-start CADC urban cycle, where the result was 2.1 10 12 /km, compared to an average of 8.1 10 11 /km on the warm-start version normally used. These results may indicate the effect of warm-up, with perhaps factors such as less cold quench resulting in lower particle formation. For the full CADC tests, the results were also within the final Euro 6 limit value. For the WLTC tests, though, the results consistently exceeded this limit value. As with other tests, the results were highest on the first phase of the test and then reduced through the subsequent phases, as shown in Table 6. As might be expected from the nature of the cycles, the test results for the Random Cycles were more varied, but all were above the EU final limit. CO 2 emissions (averages of 157 and 153 g/km respectively, but all the PEMS tests result in significantly higher full-test CO 2 figures, ranging from 210 to 290 g/km, with an average of 234 g/km. Diesel Vehicle The overview of the CO and HC results for this vehicle, shown in Figures 9 and 10, is very similar in most respects to that of the gasoline vehicle. The averages of the results on both the chassis dyno tests and the PEMS tests were below the Euro 6 limit values. For PEMS route 2, though, the CO results on 1 of the 3 trips were above the current (NEDC) limit. The CO emissions on PEMS route 2 were higher than on PEMS route 1 and more variable. Both routes gave higher CO emissions than any of the chassis dyno cycles, including the Random Cycles. All tests (including PEMS) resulted in HC emissions less than half the legislative limit, with the WLTP producing the lowest results at 21 mg/km. Table 6. Particle number results in WLTC test phases, gasoline vehicle CO 2 is one of the European Commission's main drivers for the introduction of the WLTC, with the intent to provide CO 2 data that is more representative of real-world driving performance. Figure 9. Comparison of CO emissions results, diesel vehicle Figure 8. Comparison of CO 2 emissions results, gasoline vehicle The results shown in Figure 8 indicate that although the full WLTP does result in higher CO 2 emissions than the current NEDC procedure (145 g/km compared to 131 g/km), the main difference appears to result from the higher inertia mass rather than the cycle itself, as the NEDC tests conducted at the WLTP inertia resulted in CO 2 emissions averaging 147 g/km. Both the CADC and the Random Cycles produced somewhat higher Figure 10. Comparison of HC emissions results, diesel vehicle For this vehicle the NEDC and CADC tests were conducted using the current (NEDC-based) inertia, with an additional CADC at the higher (WLTP) inertia for reference. The CO
results increased for the higher inertia test but remained well within the limit values, whilst the HC results were almost identical for both inertias. Regarding particulate mass (chassis dyno tests) and soot content of particulate mass (PEMS tests), the results shown in Figure 11 are very much in line with what would be expected from a vehicle equipped with a Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF). All results were below 1 mg/km. The PEMS tests using the PASS instrument to measure soot mass yielded the lowest results, with emissions of 0.1 mg/km on both routes. There were no regenerations during these tests. Similarly, although closer to the limit value, the particle number results shown in Figure 12, also demonstrate the effectiveness of the DPF in removing particulate over all test cycles. inertia mass does appear to have an effect, with the CADC tests at the lower (NEDC) inertia resulting in average CO 2 emissions of 213 g/km and the single test at the higher (WLTP) inertia giving 232 g/km. Figure 13. Comparison of CO 2 emission results, diesel vehicle Figure 11. Comparison of particulate mass emissions, diesel vehicle The emissions of NOx shown in Figure 14 show significant differences between the test cycles for this vehicle. As has been noted in other studies [1], [7], [12], NOx emissions from modern diesel vehicles can be substantially higher than the Type Approval values in real-world driving and in tests on cycles other than the NEDC. For this vehicle the results on the standard NEDC tests averaged 17 mg/km (range 13 to 20 mg/ km), compared to the Euro 6 limit of 80 mg/km for compression-ignition vehicles, which is 20 mg/km higher than the limit for positive-ignition vehicles. Figure 12. Comparison of particle number emissions, diesel vehicle A comparison of the CO 2 results for the various cycles is shown in Figure 13. As for the gasoline vehicle, the results indicate that CO 2 emissions during the PEMS tests are significantly higher than during any of the test cycles. The results on PEMS route 1 average 284 g/km and those on route 2 average 291 g/km. For comparison the emissions on the current (NEDC) test were 223 g/km. In this case the new WLTP test results in only a small increase in CO 2 compared to the NEDC, at 227 g/km. As with the gasoline vehicle, the higher Figure 14. Comparison of NOx emissions results, diesel vehicle. Surprisingly, even though the vehicle incorporates a comprehensive NOx control aftertreatment system, the WLTC results slightly exceeded the Euro 6 limit value, at an average figure of 83 mg/km. Both sets of results for the CADC tests significantly exceeded the Euro 6 (NEDC) limit, at 145 mg/km for the lower inertia and 269 mg/km for the single test at the higher inertia. The results suggest NOx emissions for this
vehicle are affected by a combination of inertia and drive cycle with PEMS providing substantially higher emissions than the dynamometer cycles. One approach being considered for the analysis of PEMS data utilizes the binning of emissions for short-trip elements of the test against CO 2 emissions, providing an emission value referenced to fuel consumption and therefore related to work done by the engine as shown in Figure 15. During the tests, continuous measurements of NOx were made using a Fourier-Transform Infra-Red (FTIR) analyzer. Two examples from these analyses are shown in Figures 16 (CADC Highway phase) and 17 (WLTC). Both indicate significant spikes of NOx emissions related to accelerations in the higher-speed portions of the cycle. This may indicate that to meet future EU emissions requirements, additional attention may need to be paid to the calibration of engine and emissions control systems under conditions found during real driving but outside the current NEDC test area. Figure 15. NOx emissions normalized to CO 2 emission. Relatively high NOx emissions originated from the highway phase of the CADC, which reaches 150 km/h. Similarly, the extra high-speed phase of the WLTC, which reaches 130 km/h, produced much higher NOx emissions than other phases of the test. The results for each phase of these tests are shown in Tables 7 (CADC) and 8 (WLTC). Figure 16. Continuous NOx emissions (measured by FTIR) over the Highway phase of CADC test. Table 7. CADC NOx emissions by test phase, diesel vehicle Figure 17. Continuous NOx emissions (measured by FTIR) over a WLTC test. Table 8. WLTC NOx emissions by test phase, diesel vehicle As might be expected from the nature of the Random Cycles, the three tests (all on different Random Cycles) produced a range of NOx emissions results, with the lowest being 74 mg/ km and the others significantly higher at 172 mg/km and 221 mg/km. As with other cycles, the main peaks of NOx emissions appear to be related to accelerations during the higher-speed portions of the cycle. The work by the European Commission's Joint Research Centre (DG-JRC) [1], [13] has indicated that real-world NOx emissions of recent diesel vehicles measured using PEMS may be much higher than those reported for the NEDC test. The results from this test program agree with their conclusions,
with the test vehicle showing average full-route emissions of 449 mg/km on PEMS test route 1 and 511 mg/km over route 2. For the PEMS tests, a mass of data are available to assist in the analysis of the emissions performance, including vehicle location and altitude, vehicle speed, engine speed, engine load, ambient and coolant temperatures and gas flows. One of the plots that appears useful for NOx is to assess the NOx emissions at various speeds and loads. Figures 18 and 19 show two examples of bubble plots of engine speed vs. load in which the NOx mass emissions (in mg/s) relate to the size of the bubble for that speed-load point. To aid in the evaluation a reference bubble of 25 mg/s is included (shown in blue). SUMMARY/CONCLUSIONS AECC has conducted a test program on 2 modern European production vehicles, one a Euro 5 gasoline vehicle and the other a Euro 6 diesel vehicle. The test program consisted of chassis dynamometer tests using the current (NEDC) test procedure, the Artemis (CADC) cycles that are widely used in Europe to develop emissions factors for air quality models, the new UN World harmonized Light vehicle test Cycle (WLTC) and Procedures (WLTP) and a set of Random Cycles developed as part of the European Commission's working group on Real Driving Emission of Light-Duty Vehicles (RDE- LDV) and based on short-trip segments used in the development of WLTC. In addition, gaseous and particulate mass real-driving emissions have been measured for both vehicles using Portable Emissions Measurement Systems (PEMS) during on-the-road driving. The test results show that there can be substantial differences for some pollutants measured as real driving emissions (RDE) using PEMS equipment, compared to the test cycles. This does not necessarily mean that the RDE emissions exceed the Type Approval limit values. For both vehicles all CO and HC results were below the relevant EU limit values. In some cases, though, the PEMS emissions for complete test routes can exceed Type Approval limits by a substantial margin - notably for the diesel NOx emissions. Figure 18. Bubble chart of NOx emissions by engine load and speed for PEMS trip 5 (Route 1). Figure 19. Bubble chart of NOx emissions by engine load and speed for PEMS trip 6 (Route 2). Both indicate that NOx is well controlled at engines speeds up to approximately 2000 rpm in combination with engine loads up to approximately 75%. Each of the PEMS tests included periods of idling of 70 to 90s. During such periods NOx levels remained well controlled. At higher speeds and loads, however, NOx emissions are substantially higher. This tends to confirm that the future RDE demands will require further attention to be paid to specific areas of the engine map. For the gasoline vehicle, which does not incorporate a particulate filter, particulate mass emissions were well below the limits for Euro 6 on all tests, but particle number emissions on the NEDC and CADC tests were close to the limit that will apply fully from 2017 and above that limit on the WLTC and Random Cycles tests. The diesel vehicle, which incorporated a Diesel Particulate Filter, also gave low particulate mass emissions, with average particle number emissions below the Euro 6 limit for all tests. For the diesel vehicle the results on the current Type Approval test were well within the Euro 6 limit value, whilst those on the new WLTP were marginally above it. All other tests, and particularly the two PEMS routes, gave substantially higher NOx emissions. Examination of some of the more detailed data available indicates that the high NOx emissions primarily occur under conditions of higher speed and load. The results indicate that when the EU introduces their additional requirements for control of real Driving Emissions, this is one of the areas that will need to be addressed. Both vehicles gave higher CO 2 emissions on the PEMS tests than on any of the chassis dyno tests. Tests at different inertia weights indicated that the higher inertia results in higher CO 2, and in both cases this appears to make more difference to the results than the change of cycle although PEMS results were higher than the dynamometer results for both vehicles.
REFERENCES 1. Weiss, Bonnel, Kühlwein, Provenza et al, Will Euro 6 reduce the NOx emissions of new diesel cars? Insights from on-road tests with Portable Emissions Measurement Systems (PEMS), Atmospheric Environment 62657-665, 2012, doi:10.1016/j. atmosenv.2012.08.056. 2. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. Cars 2020: Action Plan for a competitive and sustainable automotive industry in Europe, (2012), COM (2012) 636 final, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/lexuriserv/ LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2012:0636:FIN:EN:PDF 3. Weiss, Bonnel, Hummel & Steininger, A complementary emissions test for light-duty vehicles: Assessing the technical feasibility of candidate procedures, JRC Scientific and Policy Report EUR 25572 EN, 2013, http://publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu/repository/ handle/111111111/27598 or doi:10.2790/65654. 4. UN Regulation No.83, Annex 4a, paragraph 6.1, www.unece.org/ fileadmin/dam/trans/main/wp29/wp29regs/r083r4e.pdf 5. Draft Global technical regulation No. XX, Worldwide Harmonised Light Vehicle Test Procedures (WLTP), https://www2.unece. org/wiki/download/attachments/5801176/26.08.2013%20draft. pdf?api=v2. Note this is the draft version of the Regulation (at September 2013) for approval by GRPE and is likely to be updated. 6. André, The ARTEMIS European driving cycles for measuring car pollutant emissions. Science of the Total Environment 334-335, 73-84, 2004, doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2004.04.070. 7. Favre, C., Bosteels, D., and May, J., Exhaust Emissions from European Market-Available Passenger Cars Evaluated on Various Drive Cycles, SAE Technical Paper 2013-24-0154, 2013, doi:10.4271/2013-24-0154. 8. Schindler, W., Haisch, C., Beck, H., Niessner, R. et al., A Photoacoustic Sensor System for Time Resolved Quantification of Diesel Soot Emissions, SAE Technical Paper 2004-01-0968, 2004, doi:10.4271/2004-01-0968. 9. Andersson, Giechaskiel et al, Particle Measurement Programme (PMP) Light-duty Inter-laboratory Correlation Exercise (ILCE_LD) Final Report, European Commission Joint Research Centre report EUR 22775 EN, 2007, http://ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu/uploads/fileadmin/ Documentation/Reports/Emissions_and_Health/EUR_2006-2007/ EUR_22775_EN.pdf 10. Mamakos, & Manfredi, Physical characterization of exhaust particle emissions from late technology gasoline vehicles, European Commission Joint Research Centre report EUR 25382 EN, 2012, doi:10.2788/3251. 11. Maricq, Szente et al, Influence of Mileage Accumulation on the Particle Mass and Number Emissions of Two Gasoline Direct Injection Vehicles, Environmental Science & Technology 47 (20), 11890-11896, 2013, doi:10.1021/es402686z. 12. Fontaras, Franco, Dilara, Martini & Manfredi, Development and review of Euro 5 passenger car emission factors based on experimental results over various driving cycles Science of the Total Environment 468-469 1034-1042, 2014, doi:10.1016/j. scitotenv.2013.09.043. 13. Weiss, Bonnel et al, On-Road Emissions of Light-Duty Vehicles in Europe, Environmental Science & Technology 45 (19) 8575-8581, 2011, doi:10.1021/es2008424. CONTACT INFORMATION AECC Boulevard Auguste Reyers 80 B-1030 Brussels Belgium www.aecc.eu. info@aecc.eu ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors wish to thank the test laboratory for the test work and data production that has led to this paper and to the members of AECC who funded the program. DEFINITIONS/ABBREVIATIONS AECC - Association for Emissions Control by Catalyst Artemis - Common Artemis Driving Cycles (CADC) CADC - Common Artemis Driving Cycles CO - carbon monoxide CO 2 - carbon dioxide DI - Direct Injection De-NOx - emissions control system for removal of NOx DG - European Commission Directorate General - Joint research Centre DPF - Diesel Particulate Filter ECE - European urban driving cycle EU - European Union Euro 5 - EU emissions stage applicable to cars, starting 1 September 2009 Euro 6 - EU emissions stage applicable to cars, starting 1 September 2014. EUDC - European extra-urban driving cycle FTIR - Fourier Transform Infra-Red analyzer GDI - Gasoline Direct Injection GRPE - United Nations Working Party on Pollution and Energy HC - (total) hydrocarbons NEDC - New European Driving Cycle NO - nitric oxide NO 2 - Nitrogen dioxide NOx - oxides of nitrogen O 2 - oxygen PEMS - Portable Emissions measurement System. PFI - Port Fuel Injection PM - Particulate Mass PN - Particle Number RDE - Real Driving Emissions RDE-LDV - Real Driving Emissions of Light-Duty Vehicles rpa - relative positive acceleration rpm - revolutions per minute (engine speed) TWC - Three-Way Catalyst UN - United Nations v max - maximum speed WLTC - Worldwide Light-duty Test Cycle WLTP - Worlwide harmonized Light vehicle Test Procedure