Hydroprocessing: Hydrotreating & Hydrocracking. Chapters 7 & 9

Hydroprocessing: Hydrotreating & Hydrocracking Chapters 7 & 9

Gases Gas Sat Gas Plant Polymerization LPG Sulfur Plant Sulfur Alkyl Feed Alkylation Butanes Fuel Gas LPG Gas Separation & Stabilizer Light Naphtha Heavy Naphtha Isomerization Naphtha Hydrotreating Naphtha Reforming Isomerate Polymerization Naphtha Alkylate Reformate Naphtha Aviation Gasoline Automotive Gasoline Solvents Atmospheric Distillation Crude Oil Desalter Vacuum Distillation AGO LVGO HVGO Distillate Gas Oil Hydrotreating Kerosene Fluidized Catalytic Cracking Hydrocracking Cat Distillates Cycle Oils Cat Naphtha Fuel Oil Distillate Hydrotreating Treating & Blending Jet Fuels Kerosene Solvents Heating Oils Diesel Residual Fuel Oils DAO Solvent Deasphalting Coker Naphtha SDA Bottoms Naphtha Asphalts Vacuum Residuum Visbreaking Coking Heavy Coker Gas Oil Light Coker Gas Oil Distillates Fuel Oil Bottoms Solvent Dewaxing Lube Oil Waxes Lubricant Greases Waxes Coke 2

U.S. Refinery Implementation of Hydrotreating EIA, Jan. 1, 2017 database, published June 2017 http://www.eia.gov/petroleum/refinerycapacity/ 3

U.S. Refinery Implementation of Hydrocracking EIA, Jan. 1, 2017 database, published June 2017 http://www.eia.gov/petroleum/refinerycapacity/ 4

Purpose Hydrotreating Remove hetero atoms & saturate carbon carbon bonds Sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, & metals removed Olefinic & aromatic bonds saturated Minimal cracking Minimal conversion 10% to 20% typical Products suitable for further processing or final blending Reforming, catalytic cracking, hydrocracking Hydrocracking Severe form of hydroprocessing Break carbon carbon bonds Drastic reduction of molecular weight Reduce average molecular weight & produce higher yields of fuel products 50%+ conversion Products more appropriate for diesel than gasoline http://www.kbr.com/newsroom/publications/brochures/hydroprocessing Technology.pdf 5

Example Hydrogen Usage Refining Overview Petroleum Processes & Products, by Freeman Self, Ed Ekholm, & Keith Bowers, AIChE CD ROM, 2000 6

Characteristics of Petroleum Products Hydrocracking: hydrogen addition to minimize coke formation Refining Overview Petroleum Processes & Products, by Freeman Self, Ed Ekholm, & Keith Bowers, AIChE CD ROM, 2000 7

Characteristics of Petroleum Products Hydrotreating: just enough conversion to remove undesirable atoms; hydrogen addition for atom removal Refining Overview Petroleum Processes & Products, by Freeman Self, Ed Ekholm, & Keith Bowers, AIChE CD ROM, 2000 8

Hydroprocessing Trends Hydrogen is ubiquitous in refinery & expected to increase Produces higher yields & upgrade the quality of fuels The typical refinery runs at a hydrogen deficit As hydroprocessing becomes more prevalent, this deficit will increase As hydroprocessing progresses in severity, the hydrogen demands increase dramatically Driven by several factors Increased use of hydrodesulfurization for low sulfur fuels Heavier & higher sulfur crudes Reduction in demand for heavy fuel oil More complete protection of FCCU catalysts Demand for high quality coke Increased production of diesel 9

Sources of Hydrogen in a Refinery By product from other processes Catalytic Reformer Most important source of hydrogen for the refiner Continuously regenerated reformer: 90 vol% Semi continuously regenerated reformer: 80 vol% FCCU Offgas 5 vol% hydrogen with methane, ethane & propane Several recovery methods (can be combined) o Cryogenic o Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) o Membrane separation Manufactured Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) Most common method of manufacturing hydrogen 90 95 vol% typical purity Gasification / Partial Oxidation Produce synthesis gas (syngas) Hydrogen recovery o Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) o Membrane separation More expensive than steam reforming but can use low quality byproduct streams 10

Hydroprocessing Catalysts Hydrotreating Desired function Cobalt molybdenum sulfur removal & olefin saturation Nickel molybdenum nitrogen removal & aromatic saturation Reactor configuration Downflow fixed bed temperature to control final sulfur content First bed may guard bed for nickel & vanadium o Cheaper catalysts o Most removal of hetereo atoms in subsequent beds Selective catalysts for sulfur removal without olefin saturation Maintaining high octane rating Hydrocracking Crystalline silica alumina base with rare earth metals deposited in the lattice Platinum, palladium, tungsten, and/or nickel Rare earth metals typically mixture of lanthanum, cerium, and other minor quantities Acid function promotes the cracking Feed stock must first be hydrotreated Catalysts deactivate & coke forms even with hydrogen present Hydrocrackers require periodic regeneration of the fixed bed catalyst systems Channeling caused by coke accumulation a major concern Can create hot spots that can lead to temperature runaways Reactor configuration Fixed bed typical for gas oil hydrocracking Expanded circulating bed or slurry proposed for resid hydrocracking Hydroprocessing catalysts https://grace.com/catalysts and fuels/en us/arthydroprocessing catalysts 11

Reactor Bed Configurations Petroleum Refining Processes J.G. Speight & B. Özüm Marcel Dekker, Inc., 2002, pg. 452 Sample packing of catalyst on top of supports Model prepared by Enterprise Products 12

Hydrodesulfurization Sulfur Sulfur converted to hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S) Added hydrogen breaks carbon sulfur bonds & saturates remaining hydrocarbon chains Form of sulfur bonds Sulfur in naphtha generally mercaptans (thiols) & sulfides In heavier feeds, more sulfur as disulphides & thiophenes Light ends Heavier distillates make more light ends from breaking more complex sulfur molecules Unsaturated carbon carbon bonds Olefins saturated one hydrogen molecule added for each double bond Olefins prevalent in cracked streams coker or visbreaker naphtha, catalytic cracker cycle oil, catalytic cracker gasoline Aromatic rings hydrogenated to cycloparaffins (naphthenes) Severe operation Hydrogen consumption strong function of complexity of the aromatics prevalent in heavy distillate hydrotreating, gas oil hydrotreating, hydrocracking Selective catalysts for hydrotreating cat gasoline for sulfur removal but not saturate olefins Maintain high octane ratings 14

Hydrodesulfurization Chemistry H 2 required & final hydrocarbon products dependent on position of sulfur in molecule CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 SH + H 2 CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 + H 2 S CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 S CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 + 2 H 2 CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 + CH 3 CH 2 CH 3 + H 2 S Saturation of molecules possible because of high H2 concentrations CH3CH2CH2CH=CHCH2CH2CH3 + H2 CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 Ultra low sulfur levels difficult Complex structures + 4 H2 CH3CH2CH2CH3 + H2S Mercaptan reversion CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH=CH2 + H2S CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2 SH 15

Yield Estimates Difficult to generalize because conversion of feedstock is relatively low Liquid products generally have volume & gravity increase typically +1 o API General relationship of hydrogen required vs. sulfur content Naphtha: (scf/bbl H2) = 191 (wt% sulfur) 30.7 Middle distillates: (scf/bbl H2) = 110.7 (wt% sulfur) + 10.2 (% desulfurized) 659.0 Petroleum Refinery Process Economics, 2 nd ed., Robert E. Maples, 2000 Fundamentals of Petroleum Refining, by Fahim, Al Sahhaf, & Elkilani, Elsevier, 2010 16

Typical Process Parameters http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/servicerpt/ulsd/figd3.html Petroleum Refining Processes, by James G. Speight & Baki Özüm, Marcel Dekker, Inc., 2002 Supplemented by personal conversation with Bart Carpenter LHSV = Reactant Liquid Hourly Space Velocity = Liquid volumetric flow volume catalyst 17

Sulfur Distribution vs. Boiling Point LCO Feedstock 18

General Effects of Process Variables Reactor inlet temperature & pressure Increasing temperature increases hydrogenation but decreases the number of active catalyst sites Temperature control is used to offset the decline in catalyst activity Increasing pressure increases hydrogen partial pressure & increases the severity of hydrogenation Recycle hydrogen Require high concentration of hydrogen at reactor outlet Hydrogen amount is much more than stoichiometric High concentrations required to prevent coke laydown & poisoning of catalyst Particularly true for the heavier distillates containing resins and asphaltenes Purge hydrogen Removes light ends & helps maintain high hydrogen concentration 19

Naphtha Hydrotreating Naphtha hydrotreated primarily for sulfur removal Mostly mercaptans (R SH) & sulfides (R S R') Some disulfides (R S S R'), & thiophenes (ring structures) Most common catalyst cobalt molybdenum on alumina Chemical hydrogen consumption typically 50 to 250 scf/bbl For desulfurization containing up to 1 wt% sulfur 70 to 100 scf/bbl Significant nitrogen & sulfur removal 250 scf/bbl Ultra low sulfur levels difficult because of 20

Naphtha Hydrotreating Process Reactor typically at 200 psig & 700 o F Temperature increases to compensate for decrease in catalyst activity Liquid space velocity ~ 2 per hour Hydrogen recycle ~ 2,000 scf/bbl Acid gas removal may not be directly incorporated into recycle gas loop Overhead vapor from fractionator to saturates gas plant to recover light hydrocarbons & remove H2S Product fractionation Pentane/hexane overhead either to blending or isomerization Bottoms to reformer Haldo Topsøe process flow 2011 Refining Processes Handbook Hydrocarbon Processing, 2011 21

Distillate Hydrotreating In general, all liquid distillate streams contain sulfur compounds that must be removed Saturate olefins in diesel to improve the cetane number Hydrogenation at the high pressure produces small amounts of naphtha from hydrocracking Required to get at the embedded sulfur Diesel hydrotreater stabilizer will have an upper sidestream draw producing the naphtha which is recycled to motor gasoline processing Total Distillate Hydrotreater http://www.totalpetrochemicalsusa.com/press_room/press_releases_dcpphotos.asp 22

Distillate Hydrotreating Process Reactor typically at 800 o F Hydrogen recycle starts at 2,000 scf/bbl; consumption 100 to 400 scf/bbl Conditions highly dependent upon feedstock Distillate (jet fuel & diesel) with 85% 95% sulfur removal 300 psig hydrogen consumption 200 300 scf/bbl Saturation of diesel for cetane number improvement over 800 scf/bbl hydrogen up to 1,000 psig Haldo Topsøe process flow 2011 Refining Processes Handbook Hydrocarbon Processing, 2011 23

Boiling Point Ranges for Products 3,000 2,500 19,145 bpd Sour Distillate Feed 18,292 bpd Treated Distillate 35-Treated.Distillate 31-Liquids 27-Off.Gas 1-fresh.charge Incremental Yield [bpd] 2,000 1,500 1,000 500-0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 BPT [ F] Based on example problem in: Refinery Process Modeling, A Practical Guide to Steady State Modeling of Petroleum Processes, 1 st ed. Gerald Kaes, Athens Printing Company, 02004 24

Gas Oil Hydrotreating Catalytic cracker feedstocks (atmospheric gas oil, light vacuum gas oil, solvent deasphalting gas oil) hydrotreated severely Sulfur removal Opening of aromatic rings Removal of heavy metals Desulfurization of gas oil can be achieved with a relatively modest decomposition of structures Gas oils can be contaminated with resins & asphaltenes Deposited in hydrotreater Require catalyst replacement with a shorter run length than determined by deactivation Guard chamber may be installed to prolong bed life Nickel molybdenum catalyst system for severe hydrotreating Gas oil units more expensive because of more intensive hydrogenation Quench Multi stage flash More complex strippers 25

Gas Oil Hydrotreating Process Normally two reactor beds control temperature rise Hydrogen partial pressure related to ring saturation & amount of sulfur For low ring saturation 300 psig may be sufficient 1,200 psig will convert 25% ring saturation & somewhat less than 95% sulfur removal Pressures as high as 1,500 psig can saturate 30% of aromatic rings Hydrogen absorption of 300 scf/bbl could give about 80% sulfur removal & only require 300 psig No ring saturation at these mild conditions Chevron Lummus Global LLC process flow 2011 Refining Processes Handbook Hydrocarbon Processing, 2011 26

Saturation of Benzene in Gasoline Strategies for reduction of benzene in gasoline Reduce benzene precursors in feed to reformer Hydrotreat/saturate benzene in appropriate boiling range fraction Typical processing strategy Separate & hydrotreat narrow cut C6 fraction from rest of feedstock Saturate the aromatics & olefins of the treated stream Retain the olefins in the C5 and the aromatics & olefins of the C7+ fractions Blend product back into the stripped feedstock GTC Technology process flow 2011 Refining Processes Handbook Hydrocarbon Processing, 2011 27

Saturation of Benzene in Gasoline UOP s BenSat TM process can be used on a light reformer stream Up to 30 vol% benzene in feed No recycle gas No recycle compressor No recycle compression power requirements Long catalyst life High catalyst selectivity Pros & cons No increase in RVP Mild volumetric swelling, +1 to +6 vol% Do lose octane rating 28

Catalytic Dewaxing of Middle Distillates Improve cold flow properties Clariant Selective Hydrocracking Process Selectively cracks normal paraffins due to size of zeolite pores Configurations Stand alone Incorporate within existing hydrotreating unit Combined hydrotreating & dewaxing Catalytic dewaxing bed within an existing hydrotreating unit Ref: Consider catalytic dewaxing as a tool to improve diesel cold flow properties, Rakoczy & Morse, Hydrocarbon Processing, July 2013 Combined hydrotreating & catalytic dewaxing units 29

Hydrocracking Purpose: process gas oil to break carbon carbon bonds of large aromatic compounds & remove contaminants Hydrogenation (addition of hydrogen) Cracking (carbon carbon scission) of aromatic bonds Intent to create middle distillate products, not gasoline range products 31

Hydrocracker Yield Example 32

Hydrocracker Yield Trends Figure 7.4 Start over cracking the heavy naphtha fraction when the light naphtha yields gets above 25 vol%. 33

Boiling Point Ranges for Hydroprocessing Products 700 Incremental Yield [bpd] 600 500 400 300 200 14 21 20-OffGas 1-oil.feed 100-0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 BPT [ F] Based on example problem in: Refinery Process Modeling, A Practical Guide to Steady State Modeling of Petroleum Processes, 1 st ed. Gerald Kaes, Athens Printing Company, 02004 34

Hydrocracking Feeds Typical feeds Cat cracker cycle oil Highly aromatic with sulfur, small ring & polynuclear aromatics, catalyst fines; usually has high viscosity Hydrocracked to form high yields of jet fuel, kerosene, diesel, & heating oil Gas oils from visbreaker Aromatic Gas oil from the delayed coker Aromatic, olefinic, with sulfur Usually more economical to route atmospheric & vacuum gas oils to the cat cracker to produce primarily gasoline & some diesel 35

Gas Oil Hydrocracker Feed Hydrocracking does a better job of processing aromatic rings without coking than catalytic cracking Hydrogen used to hydrogenate polynuclear aromatics (PNAs) Reduces frequency of aromatic condensation Hydrocracking not as attractive as delayed coking for resids high in resins, asphaltenes & heteroatom compounds Heteroatoms & metals prevalent in resins & asphaltenes poison hydroprocessing catalysts High concentrations of resins & asphaltenes will still ultimately coke Feeds limited to a Conradson Carbon Number (CCR) of 8 wt% Feeds require high pressures & large amounts of hydrogen 36

Gas Oil Hydrocracker Products Hydrocracking primarily to make distillates In US hydrocracking normally a specialized operation used to optimize catalytic cracker operation In US cat cracking preferred to make gasoline from heavier fractions Hydrocracking capacity is only about 8% of the crude distillation capacity Not all refineries have hydrocrackers Intent is to minimize the production of heavy fuel oil Light ends are approximately 5% of the feed. Middle distillates (kerosene, jet fuel, diesel, heating oil) still contain uncracked polynuclear aromatics All liquid fractions are low in sulfur & olefins 37

Hydrocracking Chemistry Cracking reactions Saturated paraffins cracked to form lower molecular weight olefins & paraffins Side chains cracked off small ring aromatics (SRA) & cycloparaffins (naphthenes) Side chains cracked off resins & asphaltenes leaving thermally stable polynuclear aromatics (PNAs) But condensation (dehydrogenation) also occurs if not limited by hydrogenation Hydrogenation reactions Exothermic giving off heat Hydrogen inserted to saturate newly formed molecule from aromatic cracking Olefins are saturated to form light hydrocarbons, especially butane Aromatic rings hydrogenated to cycloparaffins (naphthenes) Carbon carbon bonds cleaved to open aromatic & cycloparaffins (naphthenes) rings Heteroatoms form H2S, NH3, H2O, HCl Isomerization Reactions Isomerization provides branching of alkyl groups of paraffins and opening of naphthenic rings Condensation Reactions Suppressed by hydrogen 38

Single Stage Hydrocracking Feedstock hydrotreated to remove sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen components Guard reactors to remove metals Temperatures 660 800 o F May raise temperature 0.1 0.2 o F per day to offset loss of catalyst activity Pressures 1,200 2,000 psig Raising pressure increases conversion Hydrogen High hydrogen recycle to minimize coking Consumption Low pressure mild severity 1,000 2,000 scf/bbl High pressure high severity 2,000 3,000 scf/bbl Haldo Topsøe process flow 2011 Refining Processes Handbook Hydrocarbon Processing, 2011 39

Reactor Configuration Actual configuration may have multiple vessels and/or catalyst zones Dependent on expected feedstocks Example shows separate vessels for removal of metals, heteroatoms, & cracking Mulitiple zones in the Pretreat reactor to focus on sulfur & nitrogen removal Modified Fig. 9 Unlock next level hydrocracker flexibility in today s turbulent markets Baric, Kang, & Orzeszko Hydrocarbon Processing, September 2016 40

Value of Hydrocrackers in U.S. Refining Since 2007 U.S. oil refining focus has been maximizing distillate production at the expense of gasoline production U.S. gasoline consumption has been decreasing U.S. & worldwide diesel consumption continuing to rise Value of gas oil hydrocrackers Volume expansion through hydrogen saturation & by cracking larger molecules into smaller ones Yield a large amount of distillate products compared to gasoline products Have flexibility to shift about 10% between these products Further adjustments can be managed by changing fractionation operations Hydrocracker distillate production good quality for jet & diesel fuel Products have very low impurities (i.e. sulfur, metals, etc ) good for blending into finished product pools or for reprocessing in downstream units (i.e. reformers) Ref: http://www.refinerlink.com/blog/value_hydrocrackers_us_refining/ 41

Value of Hydrocrackers in U.S. Refining Market factors Incremental cost of hydrogen decreasing because of the surplus of natural gas in North America (from shale formations) Regional supply & demand balance of gas oils In North America gas oils price relative to the incremental disposition to a FCCU o Better margins to feed hydrocrackers to make distillate vs. feed FCCU to make gasoline o Used to have margins of $10 per bbl feedstock, now in the $15 to $20 per bbl range Downsides of hydrocrackers High hydrogen consumption High energy consumption High capital requirements High catalyst costs High maintenance costs Ref: http://www.refinerlink.com/blog/value_hydrocrackers_us_refining/ 42

Summary

Summary Hydrotreating & hydrocracking are opposite extremes of the general hydroprocessing Hydrotreating Break only those bonds that allow removal of undesired atoms (sulfur, nitrogen,.) Higher severity required to meet ultra low sulfur product specs Can also use to control wax formation tendencies Will tend to make some smaller molecules due to positon of sulfur in feedstock molecule Hydrocracking Break carbon carbon bonds to create smaller molecules Products have essentially zero sulfur feed must be severely hydrotreated to protect cracking catalysts Products are highly saturated good jet & diesel, poor gasoline Good cetane numbers, poor octane numbers High severity hydrotreating acts like mild hydrocracking 44

Supplemental Slides

Hydroprocessing Objectives Feedstocks Desired Products Process Objectives Naphthas Catalytic reformer feed Removal of S, N, & olefins LPG Hydrocracking Atmospheric gas oils Diesel Removal of S, aromatics, & n paraffins Jet Removal of S & aromatics Ethylene feedstock Removal of aromatics Naptha Hydrocracking Vaccum gas oils LSFO Removal of S FCC feed Removal of S, N, & metals Diesel Removal of S & aromatics Hydrocracking Kerosene/jet Removal of S & aromatics Hydrocracking Naptha Hydrocracking LPG Hydrocracking Ethylene feedstock Removal of aromatics Hydrocracking Lube oil base stock Removal of S, N, & aromatics Hydrocracking Residuum LSFO Removal of S FCC feedstock Removal of S, N, CCR, & metals Coker feedstock Removal of S, CCR, & metals Diesel Hydrocracking Handbook of Petroleum Refining Processes, 3 rd ed. Ed. Robert A. Meyers, McGraw Hill, 2004 46

Hydrotreating Installed Cost Includes Product fractionation. Complete preheat, reaction, and hydrogen circulation facilities. Sufficient heat exchange to cool products to ambient temperature. Central control system. Initial catalyst charge. Excludes Feed fractionation. Makeup hydrogen generation. Sulfur recovery from off gas. Cooling water, system, and power supply. Petroleum Refining Technology & Economics, 5 th ed. Gary, Handwerk, & Kaiser CRC Press, 2007 47

Hydrocracker vs. FCC Installed Cost Hydrocrackers tend to be more expensive than FCCs 50,000 bpd distillate FCC $150 million installed cost 50,000 bpd @ 2000 scf/bbl $350 million installed cost Petroleum Refining Technology & Economics, 5 th ed. Gary, Handwerk, & Kaiser CRC Press, 2007 48

Hydrotreating Technologies Provider Axens CDTECH Chevron Lummus Global LLC DuPont GTC Technology Haldor Topsoe A/S UOP Features Hydrotreating: diesel; resid; hydrodearomatization (2 stage HDS/HAD) Hydrotreating: CDHydro & CDHDS Hydrotreating: ISOTREATING, RDS/VRDS/UFR/OCR Hydrotreating Hydrotreating, pyrolysis gasoline Hydrotreating Hydrotreating; Hydrotreating/desulfurization (SelectFining) 49

Hydrocracking Technologies Provider Features Axens Hydrocracking; Resid hydrocracking (H Oil OC ) Chevron Lummus Global LLC DuPont ExxonMobil Research & Engineering Haldor Topsoe A/S Shell Global Solutions UOP Hydrocracking (ISOCRACKING); Resid hydrocracking Hydrocracking Hydrocracking, moderate pressure (MPHC) Hydrocracking Hydrocracking Hydrocracking 50

Hydrotreating Hydrogen Consumption Chemical consumption due to hydrogenation reactions Cracking reactions of carbon carbon bonds minimal in hydrotreating, even during aromatic saturation Olefinic bonds easier to saturate than aromatic bonds Straight run stocks have essentially zero olefins Hydrogen is lost in equilibrium with light gases Amount is significant & may double amount required for sulfur removal Hydrogen absorbed in liquid products Usually small compared to sulfur removal needs 1 lb/bbl Hydrogen removed with purge gas Used to maintain a high purity of hydrogen light ends dilute the hydrogen concentration Usually small compared to sulfur removal needs 51

Hydrocracking Hydrogen Consumption & Loss Heteroatom carbon bonds broken & saturated Creates light ends Heavier distillates make more light ends from breaking more complex molecules Sulfur converted to H2S Nitrogen converted to NH3 Oxygen converted to H2O Organic chlorides converted to HCl Saturation of carbon carbon bonds Olefins saturated to form light hydrocarbons. Consumption stoichiometric one hydrogen molecule added for each double bond Aromatic rings hydrogenated to cycloparaffins (naphthenes). Severe operation hydrogen consumption strong function of complexity of the aromatics Isomerization reactions generally not present Metals deposited directly on the catalysts Excess metals reduce catalyst activity & promote dehydrogenation (produces coke & hydrogen) Cracking of carbon carbon bonds Severe operation hydrogen consumption strong function of complexity of the aromatics Hydrogen mixed with products Equilibrium with light gases Significant may double amount required for sulfur removal Absorbed in liquid products Usually small compared to hydrogen used for sulfur removal Lost with purge gas 52

Severity of operations Hydrocracking solutions squeeze more ULSD from heavy ends E. Benazzi, J. Bonnardot, F. Morel, Hydrocarbon Processing, November 2009 53

Single Stage Hydrocracking with HDS 1 st Step Petroleum Refinery Process Economics, 2 nd ed., Robert E. Maples, Figure 14 1, 2000 54

UOP Two Stage Unicracking Process http://www.uop.com/hydrocracking unicracking stage/ 55

UOP s HyCycle Unicracking TM Process http://www.uop.com/objects/hycycle.pdf 56