Lecture 4 - Road Transport II

Lecture 4 - Road Transport II

ROAD TRANSPORT II LECTURE STRUCTURE Section 1 Section 2 Infrastructure Operations

CONSTRUCTION Network of road types (local to expressway) Construction (surface, gradients, lighting ) Speeds (min, max, varying) Number of lanes Regulations Entry points Construction Concrete Bitumen Un-bound soil / aggregate

CONSTRUCTION Standard design life 40 60 years Cost UK - Cost per lane (motorways 2 x 3 lane) US $10m per km UK - Cost per lane (carriageway 2 x 2 lane) US $7.5m per km Excludes tunnels, bridges, land etc

MAJOR LAND REQUIREMENTS Source: C.A. O Flaherty (2002),.Highways -The location, design, construction and maintenance of road pavements

GRADIENTS & CURVES Gradient = slope of road Road design gradients vary with type of road Design speed of 60 km/h - maximum gradient 8% Design speed of 140 km/h - maximum gradient 4% Steep gradients Major impact on traffic flows Require greater engine power to maintain speed Lead to greater fuel consumption Route avoidance = time and money Traffic management Crawler / escape lanes Speed / axle restrictions

GRADIENT %

ROAD NETWORKS Developed countries have substantial road networks Support national and local economies Allow freight to move efficiently and safely Provide routes for electricity, gas, water and telephones Total (Km) Total roads (Km) Km per square km Km per 1,000 persons Paved roads (Km) Paved roads (%) USA 6,465,799 0.71 21.0 4,209,835 65% India 3,316,452 1.12 2.8 1,517,077 45% China 1,930,544 0.2 1.4 1,575,571 82% Japan 1,196,999 3.28 9.4 949,101 79% Australia 812,972 0.04 105.8 341,448 42% UK 398,366 1.65 6.5 398,366 100% South Korea 103,029 1.06 2.1 80,642 78% Source: BTS -Freight Transportation Global Highlights 2010

EXPRESSWAY PROVISION Synonyms Highway Expressway Motorway - Interstate A measure of how developed a country s road network is Characteristics High capacity High speed Link between regions, communities and industrial centers Improved road infrastructure Reduces transit time Eases congestion Can be a victim of its own success Total (Km) Paved Roads (Km) Source: BTS -Freight Transportation Global Highlights 2010 & OECD Motorway Roads (Km) Motorways (%) USA 4,209,835 75,000 2% Japan 949,101 7,383 0.08% UK 398,366 3,555 0.9% South Korea 80,642 3,117 4%

EXPRESSWAY PROVISION - CHINA China s National Trunk Highway System (NTHS) Completed 13 years ahead of schedule 1988 0 km 1989 147 km 2008 53,600 km 2010 74,000 km Further massive investment scheduled The total costs US$240 billion Financed by private companies Drivers pay road toll to use Operational Under construction / planned

INTERNATIONAL NETWORKS - ASIA

INTERNATIONAL NETWORKS - EUROPE

FACTORS IMPACTING Construction Materials, quality Maintenance Materials Operations Schedule of maintenance 50% USA roads in poor condition (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials 2009)

FACTORS IMPACTING Climate Snow, ice, high winds, rain (earthquakes) Pollution (acid rain) May cause physical damage Road surface / infrastructure Vehicles

IMPACT ON ROAD TRANSPORT Disruption to traffic flows Accidents and delay Cost of delay to customers Cargo losses Cost and time of repairs to infrastructure Further delays during repair Reduced by good design and road management May require seasonal weight limits

FACTORS IMPACTING Traffic loading Volume of traffic Mix of traffic Freight Passenger Vehicle characteristics Axles, suspension, tyres Axle weight is main cause of damage Number of axles Spacing of axles Load distribution 30 tonnes 30 tonnes 30 tonnes

LIFT AXLES Also known as airlift axles or drop axles Lowered Increase weight capacity Distributes weight over more wheels Raised Save wear on the tyres and axles when not needed Increase traction in the remaining wheels Lift axles

AXLE WEIGHT LIMITS ONTARIO

SPEED LIMITS Improve road traffic safety Reduce number of road traffic casualties (likelihood) Reduce the severity of injury (impact) Reduce environmental impact Road damage Noise Vibration Emissions Fuel use Trucks May have speed limiters installed Greater stopping distances

SPEED LIMITS - JACK KNIFING Tractor-trailer units prone to jack knifing in adverse driving conditions

WHICH SIDE OF THE ROAD - LEFT

TUNNELS & BRIDGES Overcome natural barriers Significant cost and engineering requirements Advantages Saves travel time by providing shorter routes Reduced fuel costs and emissions Avoids alternative routes that may be affected by extreme weather conditions Reduces traffic volumes and traffic noise in local communities Laerdal Tunnel, Norway 24.5 Km St. Gotthard Tunnel, Switzerland 17 Km Dartford Crossing, UK 0.5 Km

TUNNELS - SAFETY 11 died 1000ºC 13 trucks Closed for 2 months

TUNNELS - SAFETY Tunnel accidents Human life Increased congestion Pollution and Repair costs Two-tube tunnels prevent head on collisions Following fire in Gotthard tunnel (2001) 3,500 lorries per day allowed (before 5,500) Must keep 150 metres from lorry in front Hazardous cargo restrictions 2010 EU minimum road tunnel safety > 500m long Structural design Ventilation Emergency access Communications Operation / management Real time monitoring Emergency services

BRIDGE - SAFETY Design Height Weight limits Volume of traffic Management of traffic flows Routeing implications Environment High winds Snow and ice conditions Tacoma Narrows Suspension Bridge Bridge Bashing

BRIDGE - SAFETY Wind Speed (Gusts) Restrictions >35 mph 40mph speed limit on bridge >45 mph Bridge closed to double-decked buses Bridge closed to: High-sided rigid or articulated HGVs Articulated tippers (if empty) >50 mph Furniture vans Luton vans Transit van style with modification Bridge closed to all vehicles except cars >65 mph 30mph speed limit on bridge >80 mph Bridge closed to all traffic Gust = short bursts of high speed wind

ROAD TRANSPORT II LECTURE STRUCTURE Section 1 Section 2 Infrastructure Operations

OPERATIONS LOADING Side Loading Tail Gates Loading Bays Loading bays

OPERATIONS LOADING - LOADING BAYS Provide access for loading and unloading of trailers Accommodate a wide range of vehicle widths and heights Specialise doors used in temperature controlled stores to maintain climatic conditions

OPERATIONS LOADING TAIL GATES Typically used with rigid vehicles Also known as tail lift / ramps Variety of forms available Facilitate loading and unloading of goods Avoids need for loading bay

OPERATIONS LOADING - SIDE LOADING Available with curtain sided trailers Provides easy access for loading and unloading Palletised goods can be (un)loaded by fork lift trucks Goods secured by straps / netting / locking bars to prevent movement Security issues overcome through use of security wires

OPERATIONS LOADING - SELF LOADING TRUCKS

OPERATIONS LOADING GRAVITY & PUMP

OPERATIONS LOADING CARGO RESTRAINT Essential to protect cargo During handling From the environment Forces of truck movement (breaking) Must load cargo to account for Vibration Acceleration / deceleration Weight distribution Cargo characteristics Ease of access for unloading Segmentation of cargo Weather Road / truck restrictions 25% of truck accidents in EU due to improper cargo restraint

OPERATIONS LOADING OVERLOADING BY VOLUME Direct consequences of overloading Injury or potential loss of life to the Driver Loading / unloading staff Other road users General public Impact on the vehicle Vehicle will become less stable Become difficult to steer Take longer to stop Unfair competition for other hauliers The vehicle may become uninsured Overloading is illegal

OPERATIONS LOADING OVERLOADING BY WEIGHT Similar consequences to volume overloading Distribution of weight important Vertical (stability) Horizontal (axle limits) Weigh stations measure Axle weight - weight carried by each axle Gross weight - combined weight of all axles Stationary and non-stationary technologies Weigh in Motion Sensors (WiMS) Fines and penalties for overloading

OPERATIONS VEHICLE CONSTRAINTS Highly regulated Vehicle dimensions Carrying capacity Use (operations) Choice of truck very important Suitability for use Carrying capacity Efficiency China Korea UK Australia USA Height 4.00m 3.50m 4.00m 4.30m 4.50m Width 2.50m 2.50m 2.55m 2.50m 2.59m Length Tractor & Semi-trailer 16.50m 16.70m 16.50 to 22.75m 19.0 to 53.5m 22.9m Max weight per axle 10.0T 10.0T 9.0T 9.1T Maximum permitted weight 40.0T 35T 44T 45.5T to 125.2T 36.3T to 59.45T May vary depending on the type of goods vehicle / trailer Source: www.iru.org & UNESCAP

OPERATIONS LOADING SPACE High volume goods High cube trailers Longer length trailers Space optimization and ease of access Double stack trailers Increases vehicle payload Achieves fuel savings (12%) Subject to national maximum truck dimensions May be restricted to certain roads and routes

OPERATIONS FUEL COSTS Annual fuel consumption per articulated truck Consumption 2.66 km per litre Annual mileage 112,600 km a year Consumption = 42,300 litres Annual fuel cost per articulated truck UK = US$1.98 per litre = $83,815 Korea = US$1.35 per litre = $57,146 China = US$1.04 per litre = $44,024 USA = US$0.84 per litre = $35,557 Saudi Arabia = US$0.067 per litre = $2,836 A 6% increase in fuel costs Add US$5,000 to UK trucking costs per year Taxation is a major component of fuel price Source: www.aip.com.au

OPERATIONS EXTERNAL COSTS Tolls Prevalent on highways By lane / access Bridges and tunnel access Cost vary with time of day Cost trade off against slower route alternatives Congestion pricing Typical in city areas Access restrictions To certain routes / areas Driver schedules have to be accommodated Toll Congestion Pricing Access Restrictions

OPERATIONS MANNING - REGULATION To protect road users from overworked and tired drivers of heavy vehicles 20% of commercial driver crashes due to fatigue (2001 European Transport Safety Council) Covers drivers undertaking the carriage of goods or carrying out business Lays down strict rules regarding Time spent driving Breaks during driving day Daily and weekly rest periods May be recorded in log book or by tachograph Example Tacograph European Working Time Directive (EU Regulation 561/2006/EC)

OPERATIONS EU DRIVING REGULATIONS Maximum daily driving: Maximum weekly driving: Maximum fortnightly driving: Maximum driving before a break: Minimum breaks after driving: Minimum daily rest (normally): Reduced daily rest: Split daily rest: Minimum weekly rest (normally): Reduced weekly rest: Rest on ferries/trains: 9 hours 10 hours on 2 days in week Six 24-hour periods 90 hours 4½ hours 45 minutes or one break of at least 15 minutes and one of at least 30 minutes each to equal 45 minutes 11 hours 9 hours on up to 3 days per week The 11-hour daily rest period may be split into two periods the first at least 3 hours, the other at least 9 hours 45 hours once each fixed week 24 hours (any reduction must be made up en bloc by end of the third following week) Normal daily rest (11 hours) may be interrupted not more than twice: no more than 1 hour between parts drivers must have access to a bunk or couchette for both parts of rest Source: D Lowe (2010), The Transport Managers & Operators Handbook

OPERATIONS MANNING - SHORTAGES Impact of regulation EU Road Transport Directive will reduce the driver working hours from 60/66 hours to 48 hours = need more drivers Shortages due to lack of new drivers USA - 300,000 shortfall by 2012 pushing up wages by 30% by 2014 Parts of Asia, ex-soviet Union & Africa AIDS kills 20% of truckers per annum

OPERATIONS ROAD DEATHS 2009

OPERATIONS CHALLENGES Cost of fuel Environmental Reducing emissions Increasing fuel economy Safety Regulation Drivers qualifications Drivers hours Vehicle weights and dimensions Manning Availability of skilled drivers Network availability Cost of new infrastructure Tolled routes Competition from other modes