v Contents About the authors xi Woodhead Publishing Series in Energy Preface xiii xv 1 Biodiesel as a renewable energy source 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Energy policy 2 1.3 Transformation of biomass 20 1.4 Global biodiesel development 26 1.5 Value chain of biodiesel 38 1.6 Bibliography 40 1.7 References 44 2 Development of non-food agricultural industries for biofuel applications 50 2.1 Introduction 50 2.2 Biofuels 51 2.3 Biomass potentials and limitations 52 2.4 Advanced agroenergy crops 56 2.5 Bibliography 59 2.6 References 60 3 Oleochemical sources: basic science, processing and applications of oils 62 3.1 Introduction 62 3.2 Biochemistry of lipid metabolism 64 3.3 Modification of vegetable oil quality 76 3.4 Industrial use of vegetable oils 80 3.5 Unusual fatty acids 85
vi Contents 3.6 Oil processing techniques 90 3.7 Bibliography 100 3.8 References 103 4 Vegetable oil formulations for utilisation as biofuels 114 4.1 Introduction 114 4.2 Fuel properties of oils and fats 116 4.3 Low-viscosity formulations 121 4.4 Bibliography 125 4.5 References 125 5 Feedstocks for biodiesel production 130 5.1 Introduction 130 5.2 Global oilseed and oil production 135 5.3 Resources for biodiesel production 137 5.4 Main biodiesel crops 143 5.5 Minor edible oil crops 159 5.6 Fish oils 163 5.7 Algae mass culture systems 168 5.8 Oleaginous microorganisms 187 5.9 Non-edible oilseeds 188 5.10 Low-quality feedstocks 197 5.11 Bibliography 206 5.12 References 208 6 Emerging new energy crops for biodiesel production 226 6.1 Introduction 226 6.2 Crop selection criteria for biodiesel application 227 6.3 Structure and quality parameters for evaluating alternative feedstocks 231 6.4 Agronomic potential of underexploited oil crops by region 244 6.5 Bibliography 273 6.6 References 274 7 Transesterification processes for biodiesel production from oils and fats 285 7.1 Introduction 285 7.2 Process variables 287 7.3 Transesterification kinetics 295 7.4 In-situ transesterification 308 7.5 Non-catalytic fatty acid alkyl ester production 310 7.6 References 314
Contents vii 8 Biodiesel catalysis 322 8.1 Introduction 322 8.2 Homogeneous alkaline catalysis in biodiesel synthesis 327 8.3 Liquid-phase acid catalysis 340 8.4 Heterogeneous catalysis in biodiesel synthesis 348 8.5 Bibliography 371 8.6 References 371 9 Processes for biodiesel production from unrefined oils and fats 386 9.1 Introduction 386 9.2 Fatty acid esterification 389 9.3 Transesterification of acidic feedstocks 394 9.4 Jatrodiesel 412 9.5 Algal biodiesel 414 9.6 Vegetable oil soapstocks for biodiesel application 420 9.7 Tall biodiesel 423 9.8 Bibliography 425 9.9 References 425 10 Biocatalytic production of biodiesel 434 10.1 Introduction 434 10.2 Enzymatic (trans)esterification 435 10.3 Bioplastic-to-biodiesel 454 10.4 Bibliography 454 10.5 References 455 11 Industrial process technology for biodiesel production 462 11.1 Introduction 462 11.2 Biodiesel plant design and engineering 467 11.3 Selected proprietary transesterification processing technologies 487 11.4 Selected biodiesel producers 497 11.5 Biodiesel blending techniques 505 11.6 Bibliography 508 11.7 References 509 12 Analytical methods and standards for quality assurance in biodiesel production 514 12.1 Introduction 514
viii Contents 12.2 Quality control of biodiesel feedstocks 515 12.3 Biodiesel standardisation 516 12.4 Biodiesel quality management 526 12.5 Biodiesel analytical methodology 540 12.6 Bibliography 562 12.7 References 563 13 Valorisation of the glycerol by-product from biodiesel production 571 13.1 Introduction 571 13.2 Industrial glycerol production 572 13.3 Glycerol purification 575 13.4 Industrial uses and markets 579 13.5 Innovative use of glycerol 584 13.6 Renewable diesel synthesis without glycerol co-production 611 13.7 Bibliography 615 13.8 References 615 14 Sustainability and use of biodiesel 625 14.1 Introduction 625 14.2 Energy balance 627 14.3 Life cycle assessment of biodiesel 630 14.4 Performance characteristics for biodiesel 637 14.5 Biodiesel cost structure 658 14.6 Biodiesel use and markets 677 14.7 Bibliography 701 14.8 References 703 15 Evolution of biodiesel and alternative diesel fuels 713 15.1 Introduction 713 15.2 Second-generation biofuels 719 15.3 Biodiesel: the next generations 724 15.4 Hydroprocessing technology 742 15.5 Perspectives of biomass-to-liquid fuels 756 15.6 Renewable energy and biomass 772 15.7 Bibliography 775 15.8 References 776 16 Epilogue: outlook for biodiesel science and technology 783 16.1 Introduction 783 16.2 State of the biodiesel industry 784
Contents ix 16.3 Challenges for the global biodiesel industry 789 Appendix I Acronyms/abbreviations of techniques 799 Appendix II (Bio)chemical nomenclature 801 Appendix III Physical and mathematical symbols 810 Appendix IV General abbreviations 814 Appendix V Main websites 820 Index 822