Water Utilization: An Analytical White Paper. Executive Summary
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1 Water Utilization: An Analytical White Paper Executive Summary
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3 WaterUtilization:AnAnalyticalWhitePaper ForNCGAbyDr.J.McLaren,StrathKirnInc. CONTENT 1. DefiningtheBasicIssueandtheGlobalWaterSituation 2. OverallUSWaterSituation(SupplyandUtilization) 3. CornWaterUtilization 4. FutureNeeds&Issues 5. References&Appendix 1. DefiningtheBasicIssueandtheGlobalWaterSituation Trendsinwaterutilizationareshowingthatcontinuousimprovementisnowunderwayinmany countries,yetnumerouschallengesremainintherealmofwater.forexample,someofthetopissues include:populationpressures,infrastructureneeds,foodproductionandagriculturalchanges,energy generation,aneverchangingclimate,andenvironmentalconcerns.whiletheseissuesareimportant, anddeserveattention,thereisalargerunderlyingproblemrelatedtowaterinthatthefundamental watersituationisnotwelldefined,thedataisnonuniform,thedefinitionsarevaried(andoften technicallyinaccurate),andwaterisoftenapoliticalhammerwhichleadstoemotionalstatementsand actions.and,asillogicalasitsounds,allofthisonaplanetwherewatercovers~70%ofthesurface. Inordertodevelopsolutionstoaproblemitisfirstimportanttoproperlydefinethesituationinrealistic terms,andtoidentifythetoppriorityissuesforresolution.humanstalkalotabout wateruse but whatdoesthatreallymean?areweremovingwaterfromtheplanet?arewechangingitintosomething else?or,arewejustmovingitaroundfromplacetoplace?accordingtoconnoretal(2009),common definitionsaroundwaterinclude: Waterusereferstowaterthatisbeingputtobeneficialusebyhumans.Detailedwater accounting,however,requiresmoreprecisedefinition. Waterwithdrawalisthegrossamountofwaterextractedfromanysourceinthenatural environmentforhumanpurposes.differentiatingwithdrawalsbytypeofsourceisusefulto understandthepressureputondifferentpartsofthesystem. Waterdemandisthevolumeofwaterneededforagivenactivity.Ifsupplyisunconstrained, waterdemandisequaltowaterwithdrawal. Waterconsumptionorconsumptiveusereferstothatpartofwaterwithdrawnthatis evaporated,transpired,incorporatedintoproductsorcrops,consumedbyhumansorlivestock, orotherwiseremovedfromtheimmediatewaterenvironment. Whilethesedefinitionsareagoodstartandhelpsetacommonbaseline,inmostsituations wateruse or waterconsumption isnotthetechnicalequivalentofwaterbeingchemically,orreactively, ByStrathKirnInc. Page1of34
4 removedfromtheenvironment,andthisaspectisnotdefined.forexample,inindustrialprocesses watermaybeutilizedinachemicalreactiontomakeaparticularproduct(e.g.hydrationofapolymer forplasticfilm)or,alternatively,insomesituationsitmaybeutilizedforcoolingandthenberecycled. Inonesituationwaterisused(noteasilyrecoverable)andintheothercasewaterisutilizedbymovingit fromoneplaceintheenvironmenttoanotherplaceintheenvironment.inagriculture,watermaybe used inphotosynthesis,whereh 2 Oisphysicallysplitintohydrogenandoxygenandthehydrogenis incorporatedintofixedcarbonbasedmaterialsforfoodandenergy.or,formostcropsituations,water ismovedinanaturalprocesscalledevapotranspiration,wherewatermovesfromthesoiltotheairvia theplanttissuesresultinginacoolingeffect.incaseofphotosynthesis,wateris used andis permanentlyremovedfromthetotalwaterpool,whileinthecaseofevapotranspirationwaterismoved fromoneplacetoanotherintheenvironment. Therefore,theinterventionofhumansdoesnotreallycauseproblemswiththe use ofwater,but ratherwiththemovementofwaterfromoneplacetoanother,andwiththerateatwhichthatwater moves.thesolutionstoeachoftheseissuesarelikelytobequitedifferent. Innature,watercanbefoundasasolid(ice),liquid,orgas,andiscontinuallymovingamongthetypes andfromoneplacetoanother.thisprocessiscalledthehydrologicorwatercycle: Waterevaporatesfromtheoceanand,asitreachescooleraltitudes,thevaporcondensestoform clouds.cloudsmaymovearoundbutwithinafewdaysthewaterreturnstothesurfaceasprecipitation. Muchoftheprecipitationreturnsthewaterdirectlytotheocean,butabout25%fallsoverland.From theground,watermayevaporateagain,orpenetratethesurfaceandbea)takenupbyplantsandmove backintotheatmospherebytranspiration,b)enterintotheriver/lakesystemtobeevaporatedor ByStrathKirnInc. Page2of34
5 carriedbacktotheocean,orc)bestoredformanyyearsinundergroundaquifers.ingeneral,thereis continuousmovementofwater,buttheactualratesofmovementandresidencetimeinvarious locationsdependonseveralfactors,includinganthropogenicintervention.forexample,theaverage residencetimeintheatmosphereis79dayswhileundergroundaquiferresidencetimecanbeover 100,000years. Thesizeofthevariouslocationreservoirsisalsoimportant,andmeaningfulrelativetotheflux(outand in)rates,andhowtheseareimpactedbyhumanactions.currentestimates(gleick,1996)putthe world'stotalwatervolumeat~332.5millioncubicmiles,with~97%beingsaltwater.ofthe~3%total freshwater,abouttwothirdsisheldiniceandglaciers,and~30%isintheground.rivers,lakesand otherfreshwatersurfacevolumesareonly~23,000cubicmiles(0.007%total),yethumanstendto focusonthissmallamountofwaterratherthanonthemassivevolumesinotherlocations.these relativevolumesaredepictedinthefollowingdiagram: 100% 80% Rivers Swamps 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Fresh Saline 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Ice Freshwater Surface Ground 10 MM miles 3 ~3% total 60% 40% 20% 0% Lakes Surface 23 K miles 3 ~0.007% total. Earth 332 MM miles 3 Intheabovediagram,thecirclesprovideavisualrepresentationofthelargesizedifferencesinvarious locations,andthenumberprovidesanestimateofthetotalvolumesincubicmiles. Inadditiontothelargedifferencesinlocationpoolsizes,itisimportanttounderstandtheflowrates betweenthevariouslocations.thefollowingdiagramprovidesaglobalestimate(ww2010,2009)ofthe mainflowratesbetweenmajorwaterlocations,anddemonstratesthebalanceachievedinthe hydrologiccycle: ByStrathKirnInc. Page3of34
6 Atmosphere X m 3 Evaporation 361 X m 3 Precipitation 324 X m 3 Evapotranspiration 62 X m 3 Precipitation 99 X m 3 Land 34 X m 3 Oceans 1,350 X m 3 Runoff 37 X m 3 Onaglobalscalethelocationsizesremainconstant,withtheevaporationbeingbalancedbythetotal returnvolumesviaprecipitationandrunoff.notethatwaterdoesnotdisappear:i.e.itisnot used but rathermovesfromlocationtolocation.theenergyrequiredtodrivethemovementaroundthe hydrologiccycleisobtainfromthesun. Transpirationisthemovementofwaterthroughaplant,tocarrynutrientsandgeneratecooling,and accountsforabout10%ofallevaporation.watermovementawayfromafieldsurfacecanbevia leaching,evaporation,ortranspiration:inmanysituationsthesearecombined,andcalled evapotranspiration.theprocessofphotosynthesisdoes use asmallamountofwaterbutthisisnot measurableontheglobalscale. 2. OverallUSWaterSituation Supply&Reserves Ithasbeencalculatedthat,onaverage,the48continentalstatesreceiveenoughprecipitationinone yeartocoverthelandtoadepthof~30inches(usgs,2009).thisexamplesuggeststhatthereisnoreal shortageofwaterfallingintheusbut,inreality,showshowaveragescanbemisleading. Clearly,theoverallUSprecipitationisconsiderablebutdoesnotoccurinauniformdistribution,and evaporationisnotuniform,leadingtosomewetareascontrastedwithdryareasacrossthecountry(see chartsbelow).however,thisexampledoeshighlightthepointthatwaterissuestypicallyarisedueto locationratherthantotalvolume.theadditionaldimensiontobeconsideredistime,sinceprecipitation andflowratesbetweenlocationsmayvaryovertime. ByStrathKirnInc. Page4of34
7 Theannualaverageprecipitationtrend,overthepastcenturyintheUS,showsaveryslightincreasein rainfall(approx0.17inch/decadeincrease):asshowinthefollowingchartwithdatafromncdc(2009): Century average = inches/yr Trend line = 0.17 inches/decade Thedistributionofprecipitationisdemonstratedbymappingtheannualaveragerainfallover (Reillyetal,2008): Annual average rainfall Thisprecipitationistheresourcethatcurrentlyaccountsforevapotranspiration,runoffviastreams,and rechargeoflakesandgroundwateraquifers.thus,itisnotallavailableforinterceptionbyhumans.the followingchartshowsanestimateoftheprecipitationavailableforrunoffandrecharge,over1943 ByStrathKirnInc. Page5of34
8 2002:calculatedasthedifferencebetweenmonthlyprecipitationandmonthlypotential evapotranspiration,thensummingthenonzeromonths(reillyetal,2008): Monthly rainfall minus evapotranspiration Summed over non-zero months Runoffimpactsstreamflowwhichishighlyvariableforanyparticularlocationovertime.Realtimedata isnowavailabletotracksuchchanges(usgs,2009),forexample: Real-time stream flow compared to historical daily flow Theestimatedaveragewateravailableforrecharge(Reillyetal,2008)hasbeenestimated(not necessarilyaccurateforallconditionstoday,butgivesanapproximationofthedistribution).this potentialrechargecapabilitycanbecomparedtothelocationsofthegroundwateraquifers,asshown inthenexttwocharts: ByStrathKirnInc. Page6of34
9 Distributionoftheaverage availablewaterforrecharge. [At1kmresolutionandforthe period ]. TheUShasover60large aquifers,withthemain30aquifersaccountingfor~94percentofthetotalgroundwaterwithdrawals forpublicsupply,irrigation,andselfsuppliedindustrialusescombined: ByStrathKirnInc. Page7of34
10 OtherwaterreservesincludetheGreatLakes(sharedwithCanada),withatotalvolumeof~2,900mile 3 whichis21%ofthetotalsurfacefreshwaterontheplanet.alltheotheruslakes,rivers,andreservoirs areestimatedat2,540mile 3.However,fromthepreviousdistributionchartsitisclearthatmostofthe lakeresourcesarenotinareaswherewaterdeficitsarecommon.muchofthewesternunitedstates, exceptforsomecoastalareas,hasfarlesswateravailableforgroundwaterrechargeandusethanthe restofthecountry.thefollowingcharthasbeencompiledfromvariousdata(seereillyetal,2008)and showsareasoflittleornowaterdeficiency,areasofseasonalmoisturevariation(summerdeficiency andwintersurplus),andareaswithlittleornowatersurplus: Finally,thereisalargewaterresourceintheUScoastline,althoughthistendstobeignoredduetothe salinenatureofthewater.inthefuture,thisresourcewillbecomeakeysourcefromwhichtomove watertoirrigate,propagate,utilize,andevenrechargetheaquifers. ByStrathKirnInc. Page8of34
11 Utilization TheUSGShascompileddataonwaterwithdrawalsbystate,sourceofwater,andcategoryofuse,at5 yearintervalssince1950(usgs,2009b).themostrecentreportreleasedis"estimateduseofwaterin theunitedstatesin2000",andmarks50yearsofwaterusedata.(notethat2005dataisstillunder analysisandisprojectedforreleasearoundmid2009).whileusgsreferstowateruse,itshouldbe keptinmindthatthiswaterisnot used butrather utilized forvariouspurposesbymovingitfrom onelocationtoanother,orbymovingfromalocationforaperiodoftime.therearemultiple dimensionstowaterutilization:e.g.geographicalfactors,saline/freshwater,typeofutilization,sourceof withdrawal,returntorechargerates,qualitychanges,andtemporalpatterns.dealingwitheach dimensionandtheinteractionsbetweenthefactorsresultsinhundredsofviews.forthisreport,we includethehigherlevelviewsforeachtypeofutilizationplussomeadditionaldetailforspecificselected situationsandgeographies. From1950to1980,therewasincreasingwaterutilizationandagrowingconcernthat,withpopulation andeconomicgrowth,therewouldbealargeincreaseinthevolumerequired.however,duetowater awareness,economicfactors,andnewertechnologiesbeingapplied,watervolumeutilizationhasbeen aboutflatsincearound1980,despitepopulationandeconomicgrowth.thesetrendsareshowninthe followingchartwithdatafromusgs(2009b),withdetailsshownintheappendix: Atthelastofficialestimate,in2000,some408Bgal/daywerewithdrawnforallusesduringtheyear, andthatwaslessthanin1980:waterisnowbeingutilizedmoreefficiently.decreasesintotalvolume occurredinthermoelectric,irrigation,otherindustrial(e.g.mining/manufacturing)applications,which morethanoffsetincreasesinpublicsupply,ruraldomesticsupply,livestockandaquaculture.[itwillbe interestingtoseeifthetrendscontinuedthrough2005,whenthemostrecentdataarereleased.] ByStrathKirnInc. Page9of34
12 ThermoelectricPower(50%of2000total) NotethathydroelectricpowerisconsideredaninstreamuseandisnotincludedintheUSGSusereport. Waterwithdrawalforcoolingatthermoelectricgenerationfacilitiesaccountsfor~50%ofthetotalwater utilizedintheus(~3%increasefrom1995to2000).surfacewaterwasthesourcefor>99%ofthese withdrawals,and~30%wassurfacesalinewater.thefollowingchartshowsthedistribution(usgs, 2009B): Freshandsalinewaterwithdrawalsintheeasternstateswere83percentofthetotal.Texasisthesingle largeststateforthistypeofutilization.thestatesaroundthegreatlakeswithdrawahighvolumefor cooling theelectricitygenerationfacilitieswereoftendesignedtohaveaccesstothiswaterresource. ByStrathKirnInc. Page10of34
13 PublicWaterSupply(13%of2000total) Publicsupplyisdefinedaswaterwithdrawnbypublicandprivatewatersuppliersthatfurnishwaterto atleast25peopleorhaveaminimumof15connections,andmaybedeliveredtousersfordomestic, commercial,industrial,orthermoelectricpowerpurposes.thepublicsupplywithdrawalsaremostlyall freshwater.publicsupplywithdrawalswere~13%oftotalwithdrawalsand~63%iswithdrawnfrom surfacesources.stateswiththelargestpopulationswithdrewthelargestquantitiesofwater:california, Texas,NewYork,Florida,andIllinoisaccountedfor40percentoftotalpublicsupplywithdrawals.The geographicdistributionofpublicsupplywithdrawalsisasfollows(usgs,2009b): In1950,only~62%oftheUSpopulationreceivedwaterfrompublicsupplywhileby2000thathadrisen to~85%.thetrendtomorepublicsupplywaterisexpectedtocontinue. ByStrathKirnInc. Page11of34
14 IndustrialWater(5%of2000total) Notethatthedataforthissectionrefersto selfsupply industrial,whileinrealityadditionalindustrial watermaybesuppliedviathepublicsupply.industrialwaterutilizationwas~5%ofthetotal.utilization andusepurposesincludefabricating,processing,washing,diluting,cooling,ortransportingaproduct; incorporatingwaterintoaproduct;orforsanitationneedswithinthemanufacturingfacility.examples ofindustrieswithlargewaterutilizationinclude:food,paper,chemicals,refinedpetroleum,andprimary metals.in2000,surfacewaterwasthesourcefor82percentoftotalindustrialwithdrawals.nearlyall (92percent)ofthesurfacewaterwithdrawalsandnearlyall(99percent)ofthegroundwater withdrawalsforindustrialusewerefreshwater.for2000,totalindustrialwithdrawalswere11percent lessthanduring1995.asshowninthefollowingchart(usgs,2009b),louisiana,indiana,andtexas accountedforalmost38percentoftotalindustrialwithdrawals.thelargestfreshsurfacewater withdrawalswereinlouisianaandindiana,whichtogetheraccountedfor32percentofthetotalfresh surfacewaterwithdrawals.thelargestfreshgroundwaterwithdrawalswereingeorgia,louisiana,and Texas,whichtogetheraccountedfor23percentofthetotalfreshgroundwaterwithdrawals.Texas accountedfor71percentofthesalinesurfacewaterwithdrawalsforindustry. ByStrathKirnInc. Page12of34
15 Other(45%of2000total) Miningwateruseiswaterfortheextractionofminerals,coal,iron,sand,andgravel;liquidssuchas crudepetroleum;andnaturalgas.thecategoryincludesquarrying,milling(crushing,screening, washing,andflotationofminedmaterials),reinjectingextractedwaterforsecondaryoilrecovery, andotheroperationsassociatedwithminingactivities.allminingwithdrawalswere~1%ofthe2000 total. Domesticwateruseiswaterutilizedforarangeofpurposesincluding,drinking,preparingfood, bathing,washingclothesanddishes,flushingtoilets,andwateringlawnsandgardens.waterfor domesticusemaybedeliveredfromapublicsupplier(reportedunderpublicsupply)orbeself supplied typically,fromawell.forselfsupplieddomesticwater,thewithdrawalswere~1%ofthe 2000total. Livestockwateruseiswaterassociatedwithlivestockwatering,feedlots,dairyoperations,andother onfarmneeds.alllivestockwaterwithdrawalswerelessthan1%ofthe2000total. Aquaculturewateruseiswaterassociatedwithraisingorganismsthatliveinwaterforfood, restoration,conservation,orsport.aquacultureproductionoccursundercontrolledfeeding, sanitation,andharvestingproceduresprimarilyinponds,flowthroughraceways,and,toalesser extent,cages,netpens,andclosedrecirculationtanks.allaquaculturewaterwithdrawalswere almost1%ofthe2000total. Irrigation(40%of2000total) Irrigationwaterutilizationvolumewas~40%ofthetotalandincludedwaterthatisappliedforpre irrigation,frostprotection,applicationofchemicals,weedcontrol,fieldpreparation,cropcooling, harvesting,dustsuppression,leachingsaltsfromtherootzone,andwaterlostinconveyance.irrigation ofgolfcourses,parks,nurseries,turffarms,cemeteries,andotherselfsuppliedlandscapewateringuses alsoareincluded.allirrigationwithdrawalswereconsideredfreshwaterand58%wastakenfrom surfacewatersources,butthecentralstateshadthemajoritytakenfromgroundwatersources.the averageapplicationratewas2.48acrefeetperacre,acrossthe61,900irrigatedacresreportedin2000. Thefollowingchart(USGS,2009B)showsthatthemajorityofirrigationwithdrawals(86percent)and irrigatedacres(75percent)wereinthe17conterminouswesternstates,especiallywhereaverage precipitationwaslessthan20inches.thetop5statesforirrigationvolume,inthe2000survey,were California,Idaho,Colorado,Nebraska,andTexasandaccountedforover50%ofthetotalirrigation waterwithdrawals.californiaandidahoaccountedfor40percentofsurfacewaterwithdrawals. CaliforniaandNebraskaaccountedforonethirdofgroundwaterwithdrawals. Estimatesoftotalirrigationwithdrawalsfor2000wereabout2percentmorethanduring1995.Surface waterwithdrawalswereabout5percentlessfor2000comparedto1995,butgroundwater withdrawalswere16percentmore.theestimatednumberofirrigatedacreswasabout7percentmore, whichresultedinaslightlyloweraverageapplicationratefor2000. ByStrathKirnInc. Page13of34
16 About61.9millionacreswereirrigatedin2000.ApplicationratesweregreatestinthearidWestandthe Mountainstateswheresurfacewaterwasavailableandsurface(flood)applicationwasthepredominant methodofirrigation(29mmacres).inarizona,montana,andidaho,applicationratesexceeded5acre feetperacre.statesthatutilizedthehighplainsaquifer(nebraska,texas,kansas,andoklahoma)orthe MississippiRiveralluvium(Arkansas,Missouri,Mississippi,andLouisiana)forirrigationreliedmostlyon groundwaterandhadapplicationratesrangingbetween1and2acrefeetperacre.sprinklerirrigation (28MMacres)wasthepredominantapplicationmethodintheCentralPlainsstatesofKansas, Nebraska,NorthDakota,Oklahoma,SouthDakota,andTexas.Californiaaloneaccountedfor72percent oftheirrigatedacreagebymicroirrigationsystems(4mmacres).surfaceirrigationwasthe predominantapplicationmethodinarkansas,louisiana,mississippi,andmissouri. ByStrathKirnInc. Page14of34
17 Otherirrigationinformation TheUSDAcarriedoutaspecificsurveyonirrigationasasupplementtothe2007AgriculturalCensus. TheresultswillbeavailableNovember30,2009. CurrentUSDAInformationforallcrops WhiletheUSGShasirrigationvolumeat61.9MMacres,theUSDAirrigationacresintherangeof5055 MMacres:webelievethedifferencehereisthatUSGSincludesgolfcoursesandotherlandscapeareas, whiletheusdaareaisbasedonactualcrops.theusdareportsthefollowingregionalirrigationareas: Region or crop 1,000 acres Percent 1,000 acres Percent 1,000 acres Percent United States 3 39, , , Region Eastern regions 4 4, , , Northern Plains 4, , , Southern Plains 7, , , Mountain 12, , , Pacific Coast 10, , , Crop Corn for grain 3, , , Other grains 9, , , Soybeans , , Cotton 3, , ,802 9 Alfalfa hay 5, , , Vegetables and orchar 3, , , Other lands in farms 5 14, , , Census of Agriculture. 2 Census of Agriculture, adjusted for non-response. 3 Includes Alaska and Hawaii. 4 Northeast, Appalachian, Southeast, Lake States, and Corn Belt. 5 Other uses with more than 500,000 irrigated acres include corn silage, other hay, dry beans, potatoes, sugar beets, nursery crops, cropland pasture, and other pasture. Source: USDA, Census of Agriculture, selected years. Thedatasupporttheobservationthatirrigationinmostregionsisflattodownintermsofacres,except intheeasternregionwhereirrigatedacreshaveincreasedslightlyinrecentyears.thesetrendswereup until2002andthe2007dataarenotyetreleasedbutweknowforexamplethat2007cornirrigated acreswerereportedat13.2mmacres aconsiderableincreaseover2002. Whileacresmayhaveincreased,thevolumeofwaterutilizedforirrigationhasdeclined(orbeenflat) since1980.theapplicationrateperacrehasdeclined,asshowninthefollowingchart: ByStrathKirnInc. Page15of34
18 Thistrendforlesswaterapplicationperacresupportsthefactthattherehavebeenconsiderable improvementsinwateruseefficiencyacrossmostcropsectors:mostlyduetochangesinirrigation practiceandsystems.theusdadatafromspecialfarmandranchirrigationsurveysassociatedwith eachagriculturalcensus(usda,2004)alsosupportsthistrendasfollows: Change Change System Million acres Percent a All systems b Gravity-flow systems Sprinkler systems Center pivot Mechanical move Hand move Solid/permanent set Low-flow irrigation (drip/trickle and micro-sp Subirrigation a Numbers in ( ) indicate a decrease. Based on USDA-NASS 2004 revised estimate for 1998 due to re-weighting for undercoverage. (The sum of subcategories will differ slightly from aggregates because of rounding error.) Source: USDA-ERS, based on Farm and Ranch Irrigation Surveys Themaintrendsinthedataindicatethatgravityflowsystemshavebeendeclining,lowflowtype systemshavebeenincreasing,andsubirrigationhasbeenhighlyvariable(lowbaseacres).thetotal acresreportedasirrigatedinthisdataislessthantheusdareportedinthecensusdata,andweare uncertainwherethedifferentialarises.therefore,weusethecommonlyquoted55mmacresforcrop irrigationacrosstheus.thedistributionofallagriculturalirrigationis: ByStrathKirnInc. Page16of34
19 Distribution of irrigated land in farms, Total area is estimated at ~55 MM acres Thedistributionofirrigationbycropintermsofacresandinrelationtothe%oftotalharvested acresisasfollows: MM acres, irrigated 14 15% As % of total harvested acres % 8% 80% 26% 7% 66% % 0 Cornhasthehighestnumberofacresirrigatedbutitisarelativelylowpercentofthetotalcorn acresharvested. ByStrathKirnInc. Page17of34
20 Othernotesonoverallirrigationofcrops TheUSDAoftenquotesirrigationasbeing 80%ofconsumptivewateruse whichisamisleading numberbasedonthedefinition whichexcludeswaterutilizationinthermoelectricsituations.aswe sawfromtheusgswatervolumedata(previouscharts),thermoelectricisactuallythelargestvolumeof waterwithdrawalsand,whenthatisincludedthenirrigationaccountsfor~40%ofthewatervolume utilizedacrossthecountry(yr2000numbers). NOTE:thetotalwithdrawalsofwaterforirrigationcanbecalculatedas: 61,900,000acresX2.48acrefeet=153,512,000acreft/year TheUSDAestimatesthat,asawhole,theUShasabundantfreshwatersupplies.Annualrenewable suppliesinsurfacestreamsandaquiferstotalroughly1,500millionacrefeetperyear(maf/yr). Onaggregatetherefreshvolume(streamrunoffplusaquiferrecharge)is10Xhigherthanthewater withdrawalvolume.wheredoesthatwatergo?eitherrechargeorrunoffexcesstothesea. Ofcourse,aspointedoutbytheUSDA,anabundanceofwaterintheaggregatebeliesincreasingly limitedwatersuppliesinmanyareas,reflectingtheunevendistributionofthenation'swaterresources. InthearidWest,morethanhalfoftherenewablewatersuppliesareconsumedundernormal precipitationconditions.indroughtyears,wateruseoftenexceedsrenewableflowthroughthe increaseduseofwaterstoredinaquifersandreservoirs.whiledroughtsexacerbatesupplyscarcity, waterdemandscontinuetoexpandwithresultingreallocationsamonguses(e.g.urbangrowth). Inotherwords,watersupplymaybeanissuebutthisonlyarisesinparticularareasforparticularcrops withparticulartypesofirrigationandisnotauniversalnationalproblem. ByStrathKirnInc. Page18of34
21 3. CornWaterUtilization Irrigatedcornarea Theestimatednumberofacresforirrigatedcornvariesbetweenreports:USDAdatabasedonthe CensusofAgricultureestimatesthat~15%ofcornacresreceiveirrigation,andvariousUSGSdata indicatethatirrigatedcornis~15%oftotal.thedistributionofacresisasfollows: Irrigated corn, 2002 census Irrigated corn, 2007 census 1 dot = 2000 acres Total = MM acres 15% of harvested area Total = 9.71 MM acres 14% of harvested area ThemajorityofirrigatedacresareinNebraska,Kansas,andNTexas,roughlyfollowingthepositionof thehighplainsaquifer,andtheplatteriverinnebraska.smallerareasofintenseirrigationalsooccurin California,Michigan,andalongtheMississippiriversystem. Normalneedsofcorn(focusonNebraskasinceithaslargestirrigationarea) Cornrequireswaterforgermination,photosynthesis,cellturgor,andtranspiration(watermovementto theatmosphereviamovementthroughthegrowingplant).oftheseprocesses,onlyphotosynthesis actually uses water(togenerateoxygenandhydrogen).transpirationinvolvesthelargestvolume utilizationofwater,coolingtheplantasitmovesthroughandbacktotheatmosphere.some evaporationofwateroccursatthesoilsurface,especiallypriortocanopyclosure:thisistypically includedinthetotalwaterreturntotheatmosphereandiscalledevapotranspiration(et). WhileNebraskahasalargeareaofirrigatedcorn,thisdoesnotmeanthatallthoseacresmustreceive 100%oftherequiredwaterfromirrigation.Thereisanoptimumvolumeofwaterrequiredandthisis calculatedbasedonetneed,rainfall,andsoilholdingcapacity(nebguide,1996).toomuchirrigation hasacostpenaltyandcanmovenutrientsoutoftherootzone,toolittleirrigationresultsinahighyield ByStrathKirnInc. Page19of34
22 penalty.theyieldimpactofreachinganoptimumetisshowninthefollowingchartofcornyield, irrigationandet,innebraska: Dryland Limited Full Irrigation Irrigation Irrigation(in) ET(in) GrainYield(bu/ac) Grain/ET(bu/acin) TheoptimumETforcorninNebraskaranges from23 (West)to28 (East).SpecificET valuesarepublishedforspecificlocations. (SeeNebguide,1996) Intermsofproduction,thistranslatesto4.3bu/infordrylandand7.1bu/inforirrigationuptothe maximumrequiredetamount.theinterestingoutcomeofthisdataisthatunderdrylandconditionsthe cornplantisstressedtothepointofbecominginefficientinproduction.theadditionofevensome irrigationwateractuallyincreasestheefficiencyofwaterutilization(lesswaterperunitofgrain produced),asshowninthefollowingchart: Water Utilization (ET): gal per bu grain Corn yield in bu/acre Increased water used efficiency Dryland Limited Full Irrigation = Inthiscase,irrigatingtofullETrequirementprovidedthehighestgrainyieldandrequiredthelowest amountofwaterperunitgrainproduced.irrigationactuallyimprovedtheutilizationofwaterunder conditionswhereetwasnotmetfromsoilwateralone. Thecornthatisirrigated,acrosstheUS,onaveragereceives~10acreinchesofirrigationwater(~750 gal/acre/day,ifcorngreweverydayoftheyear.)ifthatsamewaterwereappliedtoallcornacresit wouldrepresent1.5acinadditionalwater:putincontextthisisonlyabout3%oftheaveragerainfall oneachacreofcorngrown. ByStrathKirnInc. Page20of34
23 AllwaterrequiredtooptimizeETneedreturnstotheatmospherewhere,within19days,itreturns againasprecipitation.thus,theissueofnotthatgrowingcorn uses water,itonlyborrowsthewater forashorttime.theonlyissuethatmightbecomeimportantisthatsomeirrigationwaterismoved fromtheundergroundaquifertotheatmosphereatafasterratethanwouldotherwiseoccur.thenthe rateofrechargeoftheaquiferfromprecipitationandrunoffalsobecomesimportant(seesectionon HighPlainsAquifer). Forcomparison:overthecourseofagrowingseason,eachcornplantwillmoveabout14gallonsof waterthroughitselfandbackintotheatmosphere.atypicalpersoninamericawilldrinkmorethanthat amounteverymonth. Offtake WhileETmoveswatertotheatmosphere,asmallamountofwateristakenwiththeharvestedcrop. Typically,1420%ofthegrainweightismoisturecontent.Thisamountisequalto~150galH 2 O/acre corngrown,whichisa)asmallamount,b)availableforutilizationintheprocesswherecornisused (livestockfeedorfuel/industrialprocessing).some2bgalwaterisexportedinthecorngrainandthis relativelysmallamountcouldbeconsideredtobe used sinceitisremovedfromthenationalwater budget(butstillremainsintheglobalwaterpool). Processing Muchhasbeenmadeofthewater use duringthecommercialprocessofgeneratingethanolfromcorn grain.again,thevastmajorityofthiswaterisnot used butisutilizedtofacilitatethefermentation process.watertreatmentandanevergrowingvolumeofrecycledwateratethanolfacilities,minimizes thevolumethatutilized.thefollowingchartshowsthecomparativeutilizationinprocessing: Comparative utilization of water Refining one barrel of oil One pound of plastic One pound of chicken One foot-board lumber Pre-2000 ethanol plants Current ethanol plant New ethanol plant Gallons of water to facilitate the production of one gallon of ethanol or the unit product noted ByStrathKirnInc. Page21of34
24 Anotherperspectiveonthisisthatmostethanolisusedastherequiredoxygenateforoctanevalueand cleaningburninggasoline,whichmeansthatover95%ethanolisusedine10blends.onegallonof formulatedgasolinerequires~27.5galwatertoproduce.therelativeproportionsofthatprocesswater areasfollows: The process for making one gallon of formulated gasoline requires water. The relative amount of water utilized is: From making ethanol Related to oil Whilemakingethanolfromcornrequireswater,thecomparativeamountutilizedisrelativelysmalland theamountthatis used isnegligible. HighPlainsAquifer ThemajorityofirrigatedcornliesovertheHighPlainsaquiferandtheremovalofwaterwithoutanyre chargecouldbealongtermissue forfutureirrigationofcornitselfandforotherremovalneeds. UnderstandingthesituationanddynamicsoftheHighPlainsaquiferisimportantforfutureactions. TheHighPlainsaquiferlaysunder8statesandhasanestimatedareaof174,000mile 2.Theirrigated landoverthisaquiferrepresents~27%ofthetotalusirrigatedarea,andtheaquifersupplies~30%of thetotalirrigationwaterutilized.theaquiferalsoprovidesdrinkingwatertoover80%ofthepeople livingabovetheaquiferboundary(~2.5mmpeople). TheHighPlainsaquiferwascreatedprimarilybyageologicalunitcalledtheOgallalaFormation (NebraskaSandHillsandalluvialdeposits),whichunderlies~80%oftheHighPlains.Saturatedthickness ofthehighplainsaquiferrangesfrom0tomorethan1,000feetinnebraska,withanaverageofabout 200feet.Depthtowaterrangesfrom0to500feet,withanaveragedepthofabout100feet.Ground watergenerallyflowsfromwesttoeastanddischargesnaturallytostreamsandspringsandby evapotranspirationinareaswherethewatertableisnearthelandsurface.pumpingfromnumerous irrigationwellsacrosstheareaalsocontributestogroundwaterwithdrawal.currently,precipitationis theprincipalsourceofrechargetotheaquifer.thelocationis: ByStrathKirnInc. Page22of34
25 HighPlainsgroundwaterisutilizedprimarilytogrowcropsforthenation;irrigationaccountsfor94 percentofthegroundwateruse.thesecondlargestgroundwateruse,418milliongallonsperday (MMgal/day),isfordomesticdrinkingwater.Almost2millionpeoplerelyontheHighPlainsaquiferfor theirdrinkingwater.surfacewaterisusedfordrinkingwaterprimarilyinthelargercitiesnearthe peripheryofthehighplainsaquifer(cheyenne,wyoming,andlubbock,odessa,andamarillo,texas). Otherutilizationofaquiferwaterincludeslivestock(222MMgal/day),mining(210MMgal/day),and industry(155mmgal/day).theirrigationresultsinatypicalhighplainsscene: Irrigation well from the aquifer Center Pivot Typical irrigated area TheUSGShasmadestatementslike: ByStrathKirnInc. Page23of34
26 RegionalvariabilityofwaterlevelchangesintheHighPlainsaquiferresultsfromlargeregional differencesinclimate,soils,landuse,andgroundwaterwithdrawalsforirrigation.withdrawalsgreatly exceededrechargeinmanyareas,causinglargewaterleveldeclines.waterlevelshavedeclinedmore than100feetsinceirrigationbegan(1940's)inpartsofkansas,newmexico,oklahoma,andtexas.in someareas,becauseofwaterleveldeclines,irrigationhasbecomeimpossibleorcostprohibitive. Inresponsetothisbelief,theU.S.GeologicalSurvey,incooperationwithnumerousfederal,state,and localwaterresourceagencies,beganagroundwatermonitoringprogramin1988toassessannual waterlevelchangeintheaquiferusingwaterlevelmeasurementsfrommorethan7,000wells. Changes in water level measured during The100 declineisactuallyonlyinsmalllocalizedregions.forsome99%ofallwaterlevelchanges between1980to1999,thedatashowarangefromariseof34feettoadeclineof67feet.theaverage areaweightedwaterlevelinthehighplainsaquiferdeclined3.2feetfrom1980to1999comparedtoa declineof9.9feetfrompredevelopmentto1980.intheareaswithfrom50to175feetofwaterlevel declinefrompredevelopmentto1980,theaveragewaterleveldeclinefrom1980to1999was26feetor about1.4feetperyear.thisdoesnotequatetotheheadlinesofa100 lossofwateracrosstheaquifer. Themostrecentdataavailableshowsthechangefrompredevelopmentto2005asfollows: ByStrathKirnInc. Page24of34
27 Changes in water level measured during from Predevelopment to 2005 Totalwaterinstorageintheaquiferin2005wasabout2,925millionacrefeet,whichwasadeclineof about253millionacrefeet(or9percent)sincepredevelopment.comparingthedatainthetwocharts aboveitseemsthat: 1. Thedeclineinwaterlevelintheaquiferdoesnotcorrespondtothehighestnumberofcorn irrigatedacres.infact,innebraska,theaquiferwaterlevelseemstoberising. 2. Thedatafor2005seemstoshowmoreintensewaterlevelchangesinlocalizedareasbutnot acrosstheaquifer.whydoeswaternotflowwithintheaquifer? 4.FutureNeeds&Issues Moretimelyinformationandavailabilityofcurrentdataisimportant.Atpresent,thedatabeingusedis possiblynolongerrelevant,orisnotaclearcurrentpicture.forexample,theusdaagricultural irrigationdataareallfromthe1990 sorbefore.theusgsusesolddatawithafewreferencestoearly 2000 sdata,thesurveyof2005isnotyetpublished.manyofthedebatesarebasedonolddataandthe presenttrendisunclear.forexample,inrecentyearsthenumberofacresirrigatedhasdeclined,orthe numberofacresirrigatedhasremainedflatwhilethevolumeofwaterutilizedhasdeclineddueto newermanagementtechniquesandbetterequipment butthesefactorsareseldombroughtforthin thedebate. ByStrathKirnInc. Page25of34
28 Cornisarelativelysmallintermsofirrigation.AcrosstheUS,theacresofcornirrigatedrepresent21% ofthetotalirrigatedarea.however,thevolumeofwaterutilizedincornirrigationrepresentsonly7%of allirrigationwater.moreover,theprimaryareaforcornirrigationliesoverthehighplainsaquiferwhich doesnotcorrespondtothemostintensewaterutilizationforirrigation(seefollowingchart): Clearly,Californiaiswherethemainissueexistsinrelationtowateravailabilityforirrigation.ForCAand otherlocalizedareas,someactionplanisrequiredtodealwithfutureneeds.historically,increased waterdemandsweremetbyexpandingavailablewatersupplies.actionssuchasdamconstruction, moregroundwaterpumping,andinterbasinconveyancearenotlikelytocontinueonanysignificant scale.thereareseveralschoolsofthoughtthatevensuggestthefuturesupplyoffreshwater(via precipitation)willbedecreasedduetoconceptsaboutglobalwarming.whilewecanfindevidencethat somewarminghasoccurredinurbansituations,wedon tfindanysignificantwarminginthemidwest, noranyrelationshiptorainfallpatterns,overthepast100years.forexample,thefollowingchartsare justtwoexamplestations: Rainfall Temperature ByStrathKirnInc. Page26of34
29 Rainfall Temperature Futurewaterdemandswillrequireoneormoreofthefollowingsolutions: Reallocationofexistingsupplies:willlikelyimpactagriculturewithwaterbeingtakenforpublic utilization,overirrigation. Changeincropwaterneed.Weseethisasbeingverydifficultsinceloweringtranspirationhasa biologicallimitduetotheneedtocooltheplant.droughttolerancegenesmayhelptosome extentbuttheirmodeofactionislikelytoberelatedtoturgorpressureratherthanloweringthe transpiration:yieldratio.droughttolerancewillincreaseyieldinsomesituations,suchasminor waterstress,butwillnotovercomemajorwaterdeficit. Continuationofimprovementinwaterdelivery.Irrigationmanagement,efficiencyofwater delivery,betterequipmentwillallmakeacontribution. Recyclingmorewaterviaadvancedtreatmentsandreverseosmosis.Allindustrial,processand livestockwaterusecouldbefurtherrecycled oftenwithinagriculture. Generatingmorefreshwatersupplywillneedtobeconsideredveryseriously,especiallyin California.Areasinproximitytotheseathatrequireadditionalwatercanusedesalinationwith shortandmediumdistancetransportinspecificpipelines.thisisjustmovingwaterfromthe largestsourcetoanareathatrequiresmorewaterforutilizationbyallthehumanactivities. Inthelongerterm,theremayevenbeaneedtorunapipelinefromseasidedesalinationplants torechargethecentralaquifersystem.thereisnorealshortageofwaterintheworld justin somelocationsandthetechnologyexiststofixthat. Itisagrowingfashiontotalkabouttheworldshortageofwater whichisastrangestatementwhen theplanetis70%coveredwithawatervolumeinexcessof330millioncubicmiles.thecurrentsituation ismoreaboutcostthanitisaboutwater.itreallybecomesaquestionofwhatvaluesocietyputson havingwateravailabletofacilitateprocessingandtheprovisionofusefulproducts.giventhepricethat peoplepayforbottledwater(anotherformofredistribution)itseemsthatpipelinedeliveryof desalinatedwatershouldbequiteacceptable. ByStrathKirnInc. Page27of34
30 5.References Connor,R.,Faurès,JM.,Kuylenstierna,J.,Margat,J.,Steduto,P.,Vallée,D.,andvanderHoek,W. (2009).Chapter7:EvolutionofWaterUse.In,WaterinaChangingWorld.3 rd U.N.WorldWater DevelopmentReport.UnitedNationsEducational,ScientificandCulturalOrganization(UNESCO)Natural Sciences,Paris,France. Gleick, P. H., (1996). Water resources. In Encyclopedia of Climate and Weather, Ed. Schneider, S.H., Oxford University Press, New York, pp Hoekstra,A.Y.,andChapagain,A.K.(2007).WaterFootprintsofNations:Waterusebypeopleasa functionoftheirconsumptionpattern.waterresourcesmanagement,21,3548. NCDC(2009).NationalClimaticDataCenter,NOAASatelliteandInformationService. NebGuide(1996).Evapotranspiration(ET)orCropWaterUse.UniversityofNebraska,Cooperative ExtensionInstituteofAgricultureandNaturalResources,NebGuideG90992A Reilly,T.E.,Dennehy,K.F.,Alley,W.M.,andCunningham,W.L.(2008).GroundWaterAvailabilityinthe UnitedStates:U.S.GeologicalSurveyCircular1323,70pp.Denver,CO. USDA(2004).FarmandRanchIrrigationSurvey(2003).Volume3,Part1,SpecialStudiesof2002Census ofagriculture,ac02ss1.u.s.departmentofagriculture,nationalagriculturalstatisticsservice. USGS(2006).WaterLevelChangesintheHighPlainsAquifer,Predevelopmentto2005and2003to 2005.ScientificInvestigationsReport USGS(2009).UnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey. USGS(2009B).USGSreportsonestimatedwateruseintheU.S. WW2010(2009).WeatherWorld2010ProjectattheUniversityofIllinois. ByStrathKirnInc. Page28of34
31 APPENDIX Watersource Oneestimateofglobalwaterdistribution: Watervolume,in cubicmiles Watervolume,in cubickilometers Percentof freshwater Percentof totalwater Oceans,Seas,&Bays 321,000,000 1,338,000, Icecaps,Glaciers,& PermanentSnow 5,773,000 24,064, Groundwater 5,614,000 23,400, Fresh 2,526,000 10,530, Saline 3,088,000 12,870, SoilMoisture 3,959 16, GroundIce& Permafrost 71, , Lakes 42, , Fresh 21,830 91, Saline 20,490 85, Atmosphere 3,095 12, SwampWater 2,752 11, Rivers 509 2, BiologicalWater 269 1, Total 332,500,000 1,386,000, Source:Gleick,P.H.,1996:Waterresources.InEncyclopediaofClimateandWeather,ed.by S.H.Schneider,OxfordUniversityPress,NewYork,vol.2,pp ByStrathKirnInc. Page29of34
32 Totalwaterwithdrawalsbywaterusecategory,2000.(fromUSGS) [Figuresmaynotsumtototalsbecauseofindependentrounding.Allvaluesareinmilliongallonsper day.,datanotcollected] PUBLIC SUPPLY DOMESTICIRRIGATIONLIVE AQUA INDUSTRIAL STOCKCULTURE THERMOELECTRIC MINING POWER TOTAL STATE Fresh Fresh Fresh Fresh Fresh Fresh SalineFreshSaline Fresh Saline Fresh Saline Total Alabama , , ,990 Alaska Arizona 1, , , ,730 Arkansas , , , ,900 California 6, , ,600 38,40012,800 51,200 Colorado , , ,600 Connecticut , ,440 4,150 Delaware ,320 Districtof Columbia Florida 2, , ,000 8,14012,000 20,100 Georgia 1, , , , ,500 Hawaii Idaho , , , ,500 Illinois 1, , , ,700 Indiana , , , ,100 Iowa , , ,360 Kansas , , , ,610 Kentucky , , ,160 Louisiana , , , , ,400 Maine Maryland ,260 1,430 6,490 7,910 Massachusetts ,610 1,050 3,610 4,660 Michigan 1, , , ,000 Minnesota , , ,870 Mississippi , , ,960 Missouri , , , ,230 Montana , , ,290 Nebraska , , , ,300 Nevada , , ,810 New ,210 Hampshire NewJersey 1, ,390 2,170 3,390 5,560 NewMexico , , ,260 NewYork 2, ,040 5,010 7,080 5,010 12,100 NorthCarolina ,850 1,620 9,730 1,620 11,400 NorthDakota , ,140 Ohio 1, , , ,100 ByStrathKirnInc. Page30of34
33 Oklahoma , ,020 Oregon , , ,930 Pennsylvania 1, , , , ,950 RhodeIsland SouthCarolina , , ,170 SouthDakota Tennessee , , ,800 Texas 4, , , ,820 3,440 24,800 4,850 29,600 Utah , , ,970 Vermont Virginia ,850 3,580 5,200 3,640 8,830 Washington 1, , , ,310 WestVirginia , , ,150 Wisconsin , , ,590 Wyoming , , ,170 PuertoRico , ,190 2,810 U.S.Virgin Islands TOTAL 43,300 3, ,000 1,760 3,70018,500 1,2802,010 1, ,000 59,500345,00062, ,000 ByStrathKirnInc. Page31of34
34 TrendsinestimatedwateruseintheUnitedStates, (USGS,2009B) Thewaterusedataareinbilliongallonsperday(thousandmilliongallonsperday)andareroundedto twosignificantfiguresfor195080,andtothreesignificantfiguresfor ;percentagechangeis calculatedfromunroundednumbers.,notavailable] Year Percentage change Population,inmillions Offstreamuse: Totalwithdrawals Publicsupply Ruraldomesticandlivestock: Selfsupplieddomestic Livestockandaquaculture ( 6 ) Irrigation Industrial: Thermoelectricpoweruse Otherindustrialuse ( 7 ) Sourceofwater: Ground: Fresh Saline ( 8 ) Surface: Fresh Saline StatesandDistrictofColumbia,andHawaii 2 48StatesandDistrictofColumbia 3 50StatesandDistrictofColumbia,PuertoRico,andU.S.VirginIslands 4 50StatesandDistrictofColumbia,andPuertoRico 5 From1985topresentthiscategoryincludeswateruseforfishfarms 6 Datanotavailableforallstates;partialtotalwas Commercialusenotavailable;industrialandminingusetotaled Datanotavailable ByStrathKirnInc. Page32of34
35 IrrigationdatafromUSGSSurveyin2000(USGS,2009B) IRRIGATED LAND WITHDRAWAL S WITHDRAWALS APPLICAT ION (in thousand acres) (in million gallons per day) (in thousand acre-feet per year) RATE (in acrefeet STATE per acre) By type of irrigation By source By source Total Total Total Micro- Ground Surface Ground Surface Sprinkle Surface irrigatn water water water water Alabama Alaska Arizona ,750 2,660 5,400 3,080 2,980 6, Arkan sas ,880 4,510 6, 510 1,410 7,910 7,290 1,580 8, California 1,660 3,010 5,470 10,100 11,600 18,900 30,500 13,100 21,100 34, Colorado 1, ,220 3,400 2,160 9,260 11,400 2,420 10,400 12, Connecticut Delaware DC Florida ,060 2, 180 2,110 4,290 2,450 2,370 4, Georgia 1, , , , Hawaii Idaho 2, ,300 3,750 3,720 13,300 17,100 4,170 15,000 19, Illinois Indiana Iowa Kans as 2, ,310 3, ,710 3, , Kentucky Louisiana , , Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi ,420 1, ,410 1, , Missouri ,330 1, ,430 1, , Montana ,220 1, ,870 7, ,820 8, Nebraska 4, ,710 7,820 7, 420 1,370 8,790 8,320 1,540 9, Nevada ,540 2, ,730 2, New Hampsh New Jersey New Mexico ,230 1,630 2,860 1,380 1,830 3, New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon 1, ,000 2, ,290 6, ,920 6, Pennsylvania Rhode Island ByStrathKirnInc. Page33of34
36 Continued STATE IRRIGATED LAND WITHDRAWALS WITHDRAWALS (in thousand acres) (in million gallons per day) (in thousand acre-feet per year) By type of irrigation By source By source Total Total Total Micro- Ground Surface Ground Surface Sprinkle Surface irrigatn water water water water APPLICAT ION RATE (in acrefeet per acre) South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas 4, ,390 6,490 6,500 2,130 8,630 7,290 2,390 9, Utah , ,390 3, ,800 4, Vermont Virginia Wash ington 1, , ,290 3, ,570 3, West Virginia Wis consin Wyomin g , ,090 4, ,580 5, Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Isl TOTAL 28,300 4,180 29,400 61,900 56,900 80, ,000 63,800 89, , Note:Irrigationunits Gallonsisavolumeapplied.Acresistheareathatavolumeisappliedto.Oneacrefootisthevolumeof waterthatcoversoneacretoadepthofonefoot:equals43,560cubicfeet=325,851gallons.oneacre inch=27,154gal. ByStrathKirnInc. Page34of34
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