FSAE SUSPENSION SYSTEM

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1 EML 4905 Senior Design Project A B.S. THESIS PREPARED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING FSAE SUSPENSION SYSTEM Michael Benitez Yussimil Libera Ali Qureshi Mateo Restrepo Project Advisor: Professor Andres Tremante Faculty Advisor: Professor Sabri Tosunoglu November 22, 2016 This B.S. thesis is written in partial fulfillment of the requirements in EML The contents represent the opinion of the authors and not the Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering.

2 ETHICS STATEMENT AND SIGNATURES The work submitted in this B.S. thesis is solely prepared by a team consisting of MICHAEL BENITEZ, YUSSIMIL LIBERA, ALI QURESHI, and MATEO RESTREPO and it is original. Excerpts from others work have been clearly identified, their work acknowledged within the text and listed in the list of references. All of the engineering drawings, computer programs, formulations, design work, prototype development and testing reported in this document are also original and prepared by the same team of students. ii

3 TABLE OF CONTENTS ETHICS STATEMENT AND SIGNATURES... ii TABLE OF CONTENTS... iii LIST OF FIGURES... vii LIST OF TABLES... x ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Problem Statement Motivation Literature Survey Survey of Related Standards Discussion PROJECT FORMULATION Overview Project Objectives Design Specifications Addressing Global Design Constraints and Other Considerations Discussions DESIGN ALTERNATIVES Overview of Conceptual Designs Developed Design Alternative Design Alternative Integration of Global Design Elements Feasibility Assessment Proposed Design Discussion PROJECT MANAGEMENT Overview Gantt Chart iii

4 4.3 Division of Responsibilities Among Team Members Discussion ENGINEERING DESIGN AND ANALYSIS Overview Kinematic Analysis Dynamic Analysis of the System Structural Design Force Analysis Stress Analysis Material Selection Design Based on Static and Fatigue Failure Design Theories Deflection Analysis Component Design/Selection Design Overview Cost Analysis Discussion Prototype Construction Overview Description of Prototype Prototype Design Front Assembly Rear Assembly Parts List Construction Prototype Cost Analysis Discussion Testing and Evaluation Overview Design of Experiments Description of Experiments Test Results and Data iv

5 7.4 Evaluation of Experiments Improvement of the Design Discussion Design Considerations Health and Safety Assembly and Disassembly Manufacturability Maintenance of the System Regular Maintenance Major Maintenance Environmental Impact and Sustainability Economic Impact Risk Assessment DESIGN EXPERIENCE Overview Standards Used in the Project Contemporary Issues Impact of Design in a Global and Societal Context Professional and Ethical Responsibility Life-Long Learning Experience Discussion CONCLUSION Conclusion and Discussion Evaluation of Integrated Global Design Aspects Evaluation on Intangible Experiences Future Work REFERENCES Appendix A: Engineering Drawings Appendix B: Manufacturing Photo Album Appendix C: Manufacturing Catalog v

6 C.1 English Catalog C.2 Spanish Catalog vi

7 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page Figure 1:Upright and A-arm Connection [3]... 4 Figure 2:Body Roll and Roll Center During a Left Turn [19]... 5 Figure 3: Definition of Positive and Negative camber [20]... 6 Figure 4: Definition of Toe-in and Toe-out [4]... 7 Figure 5: Common Suspension Arrangement [4]... 8 Figure 6: Definition of Positive and Negative Caster [7]... 9 Figure 7: Ackerman Steering Arrangement [9] Figure 8: Integrated Tripod Hub Junction [10] Figure 9: First Front Upright Alternative Design Figure 10: First Front Hub Alternative Design Figure 11: First rear upright alternative design Figure 12: Second Front Upright Alternative Design Figure 13: Second Front Hub Alternative Design Figure 14: Second Rear Upright Alternative Design Figure 15: Proposed Front Upright Design Figure 16: Proposed Front Hub Design Figure 17: Proposed Rear Upright Design Figure 18: Proposed Rear Hub Design Figure 19: Generic Four-Bar Linkage Figure 20: Synthesized Link Lengths Figure 21: Outer Wheel Steering Ackerman vs Inner Wheel Steering Ackerman Figure 22: Weight Distribution Among the Four Wheels on a 1.35g Left Turn [2] Figure 23: Deep Groove Ball Bearings Figure 24: Rear Upright Figure 25: Wilwood Braking Calipers [5] Figure 26: Rear Braking Rotor Figure 27: Integrated Tripod Hub for the Rear Only Figure 28: Front Upright Figure 29: Front Hubs Figure 30: Steering Rod Mounts Figure 31: Generic Loading on the Vehicle [9] Figure 32: Loading Forces on the Hub Figure 33: Loading Forces on the Uprights Figure 34: Forces Caused by the Braking Calipers [10] Figure 35: Braking Torque Loading vii

8 Figure 36: Rear Hub Stress Simulation Result Figure 37: Front Upright Stress Simulation Result Figure 38: Reoriented and Scaled In View of the Front Upright Stress Simulation Result Figure 39: Factor of Safety of the Rear Hub Figure 40: Factor of Safety of the Front Uprights Figure 41: Front Uprights Deformation Simulation Results Figure 42: Rear Uprights Deformation Simulation Results Figure 43: Complete Rear Assembly Figure 44: Complete Front Assembly Figure 45: Front Assembly 3D View Figure 46: Front Control Arms, Push/Pull Rods, and Bellcrank Assembly Figure 47: Front Upright and Hub Assembly Figure 48: Rear Assembly 3D View Figure 49: Rear Control Arms, Push/Pull Rods, and Bellcrank Assembly Figure 50: Rear Upright and Hub Assembly Figure 51: Part Figure 52: Part Figure 53: Part Figure 54: Part Figure 55: Part Figure 56: Part Figure 57: Part Figure 58: Part Figure 59: Part Figure 60: Part Figure 61: Part Figure 62: Part Figure 63: Part Figure 64: Part Figure 65: Part Figure 66: Part Figure 67: Part Figure 68: Part Figure 69: Part Figure 70: Part Figure 71: Part Figure 72: Manufacturing the Chassis Jig Figure 73: Manufacturing the Chassis Jig Figure 74: Manufacturing the Chassis Jig viii

9 Figure 75: Manufacturing the Chassis Jig Figure 76: Manufacturing the Control Arms Jig Figure 77: Manufacturing the Control Arms Jig Figure 78: Manufacturing the Control Arms Jig Figure 79: Manufacturing the Control Arms Figure 80: Manufacturing the Control Arms Figure 81: Manufacturing the Bell Crank Spacers Figure 82: Manufacturing the Bell Crank Spacers Figure 83: Manufacturing the Bearing Staking Tool Figure 84: Positioning the Suspension Mounting Tabs Figure 85: Positioning the Suspension Mounting Tabs Figure 86: Positioning the Suspension Mounting Tabs Figure 87: Positioning the Suspension Mounting Tabs Figure 88: Positioning the Bell Cranks Figure 89: Positioning the Bell Cranks Figure 90: Positioning the Bell Cranks Figure 91: Positioning the Push Rods Figure 92: Mounted Suspension Figure 93: Mounted Suspension ix

10 LIST OF TABLES Table Page Table 1: Gantt Chart Table 2: Teamwork Responsibility Chart Table 3: Assumptions Used for Bearings Calculations Table 4: Braking Caliper Specifications [5] Table 5: Year to Year Comparison of Front Upright Simulation Results Table 6: Total Projected Cost of the Project Table 7: Breakdown of the Project's Projected Cost Table 8: 2017 Suspension Parts List Table 9: Cost Analysis Breakdown x

11 ABSTRACT This paper will describe the whole design process of the suspension system for the 2017 Formula SAE car that will represent Florida International University in the competition. The independent double wishbone suspension design that was chosen for the car is one of the most important design considerations because it greatly affects the performance of the car. The suspension system was improved by implementing various component design changes such as new front and rear hubs, uprights, brake rotors, control arms, bell cranks and an anti-roll bar. The suspension geometry was also modified and redesigned by taking into account steering axis inclination and Ackerman geometry. The goal is to obtain a score of 20, or higher, out of 25 points, which would show an improvement over the previous year score. This project was split into several phases which includes the design, analysis, manufacturing, and testing. During the analysis phase, multiple designs were made and through results from simulations. The best designs for each component were chosen, then manufactured and installed on the car. 1

12 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Problem Statement Florida International University is competing in the 2017 Formula SAE competition that will be occurring in Michigan. The entire car is to be redesigned and manufactured following all of the FSAE rules. The cars are judged in a series of static and dynamic events including; technical inspection, cost, presentation, and engineering design, solo performance trials, and high performance track [1]. The suspension system that is redesigned and proposed is an improvement of the previous year suspension design. The suspension system needs to be light, durable, and affordable so that it can be a competitive design. The suspension components that have been redesigned needs to take into account all the knowledge and recommendations that has been gathered from previous FIU Formula SAE competitions. The primary concerns that will be focused on this year are weight reduction and the total cost, which are the main limiting factors that are taken into account when redesigning the components. Materials and design specific constraints, such as sizes of radii and tolerances, have to be well chosen in order to keep low costs and the manufacturing process as easy as possible. One major change is the new rear hubs that have integrated tripod axles, which is a considerably nice change to the reduction of weight. 1.2 Motivation Florida International University has been participating in the FSAE competition now for 5 years. Being able to build the car that competes for the 6th year in a row, motivates the team to achieve a higher score and better ranking comparing to previous years and other competitors. The competition allows for students to experience part of the engineering steps that are taken in an 2

13 industrial environment. The motivation of obtaining a better score is an important aspect that pushes the team to design the components of the suspension to be as light as possible while being a safe design. The competition allows the team to compare their skills and knowledge against other teams, and allows for the team to learn from other teams. This process is good because it helps develop everyone s skills as future mechanical engineers. The competition features an autocross type circuit where cornering time is relatively more important than top speed, which directly related to suspension design. In result, having an exceptional suspension is a major key to success. 1.3 Literature Survey The overall purpose of any design in regards to a racecar is to either reduce the time a vehicle takes to complete a set course or to increase the average speed the vehicle is at throughout the course. One of the main methods of doing so is reduction of weight. Most of the vehicle's weight is located in the area where the engine is placed. Although majority of the weight comes from the engine, it is not the only component where weight reduction should be a focus. The suspension contributes a great deal to the overall weight of the vehicle. The suspension has several components. The components focused on in this report are the following: 1) Suspension Geometry (i.e. uprights, A-arms, and suspension points) 2) Steering Geometry (i.e. Ackerman steering, roll center, camber, caster, and toe) 3) Rotors and hub. Some background knowledge for these components is provided below. The suspension geometry includes the connection of the wheel to the chassis of the vehicle. It starts off with off with a kinematic approach to determine the lengths of the components for a proper wheel attachment. The main length that is determined originally is the length of the upright. The upright, also known as a spindle, is located within the rim of the wheel, and it holds the hub 3

14 and brake caliper mounts, as well as, connects to the upper and lower A-arms [20]. The A-arms, also known as control arms, are connected to the upright on one end and on the other end connect to the chassis of the vehicle. The figure below shows a general upright vertically straight and connecting to the upper and lower A-arms. Once the length of the upright is fixed, a four-bar synthesis is done to determine the location of the connections of the A-arms to the chassis. The upright will be treated as the coupler link, and the value of the coordinates for the uprights movements are taken from the regulation standards from the formula SAE manual. The pole position determined from the calculations will be the location where the A-arms attach to the chassis. Figure 1:Upright and A-arm Connection [3] The steering geometry considers the movements the suspension system will do while taking a turn. The purpose of taking into account the steering geometry, is to improve the overall performance of the vehicle during cornering while maintaining an exceptional balance when the vehicle is driving on a straight road. When a vehicle is taking a turn, there is an acceleration generated in the radial direction producing a centripetal force. This force causes a lateral weight 4

15 shift in the vehicle, so the load on the wheels towards the outside of the turn increases, and the load on the wheels in the inner radius decreases. The weight shift occurs by the chassis being turned about its roll center [19]. Figure 2:Body Roll and Roll Center During a Left Turn [19] Figure 2 shows how the body of the vehicle would want to roll in the case of a left turn. It is important to note that when the vehicle experiences such a lateral force and causes the body to roll. The wheels don t remain perfectly vertical, but tend to shift away from the direction of turn. The turning affects different aspects of the wheel causing the wheels to slightly rotate. A preset rotation of the wheels can cause the rotation caused during a turn to benefit the vehicle, allowing it to complete the turn quicker. Some key parameters that should be tuned beforehand on the suspension are camber, toe, and caster. The camber angle is the inward or outward lean of the wheel relative to a vertical reference line [18]. When the wheel is leaned inwards, it is known as negative camber, and when the wheel is leaned outwards, it is known as positive camber as shown in Fig 3 below. As the vehicle is making the turn the lateral force is attempting to push the wheels in the opposite direction of the turn (e.g. during a right turn, the wheels on the left side will lean outward and the wheels on the right side will lean inward. Therefore, if a slight negative camber is set beforehand, during a right 5

16 turn the weight of the vehicle will shift towards the left, and the left wheels will tend to lean outwards which would make the left wheels theoretically straighten out. By the left wheels becoming vertically straight and the left wheels holding the larger amount of weight, this causes the vehicle to have more traction during the turn. Figure 3: Definition of Positive and Negative camber [20] Toe-in is when the leading edges of the wheels point slightly towards each other, and Toeout is when the wheels point slightly away from each other. Toe affects tire wear, straight-line stability, and corner entry characteristics. For minimum tire wear and power loss, the wheel should be pointed completely parallel to each other. Toe settings have a major impact on directional stability. A rear-wheel drive vehicle pushes the front axles tires as they roll along the road. Tire rolling resistance causes a bit of drag resulting in a rearward movement of the suspension arms, and because of this, most rear-wheel drive vehicles use positive toe-in to compensate for the movement, enabling the tires to run parallel to each other when the vehicle is in motion. Toe-in will also result in reduced oversteer, increased high-speed stability. Toe-out will result in reduced understeer, helping with initial turn-in while entering a corner. Generally, racecars are set up with toe out. 6

17 Figure 4: Definition of Toe-in and Toe-out [4] With a four-wheel independent suspension, the toe must be set to both front and rear ends of the vehicle. Having the toe in the rear of the vehicle creates the same effects on wear, stability, and turn-in. It is very rare to set up a rear-drive race car with toe out in the rear because of excessive oversteer when power is applied. A race car requires a low static toe-in. An independent suspension system is a type of suspension design which allows for wheels located on the same axle to have independent vertical motions [3]. The camber and the track width change when cornering and hitting bumps in a car with independent suspension. The lateral grip of a tire varies with the camber angle. If the track width changes the maximum possible value for a longitudinal force decreases. The independent suspension system allows each wheel on the same axle to move vertically independently of each other. Independent suspensions offer better ride quality and handling, due to lower unsprung weight because the suspension is usually attached directly to the chassis and the differential unit is not part of the unsprung components of the suspension. The independent suspension system is also put together with the double wishbone system in order to achieve an improved performance. The double wishbone structure is mainly used to reduce the drive height of the vehicle. The system is composed of two arms also called wishbones, 7

18 which can be designed to provide a stiffer suspension in order to achieve less body roll. The length of the arms should not be the same length so that when the position of the suspension changes the camber angle is not affected. The top arm should be shorter than the bottom arm, because there is an increase in negative camber when the car has body roll. Figure 5: Common Suspension Arrangement [4] The caster angle is the rearward lean of the wheel. The caster angle is used to cause a selfcentering effect when the wheels experience an external force that attempts to misalign them [4]. The driving force takes into effect at the caster angle. Larger caster angles are used in higher power vehicles, such as racecars. The side effects of having higher caster angles is the higher the caster angle the more difficult the steering becomes and the larger the tire wear [18]. 8

19 Figure 6: Definition of Positive and Negative Caster [7] Another way to increase the performance of a vehicle about a turn is to adjust the steering wheels, so that the wheels are trying to turn about the same point. This is known as an Ackerman steering. When a vehicle doesn t have an Ackerman, geometry configured on it during a turn, the wheels try to go around different points causing scrubbing of the tires and an increased wear of the tires. In an Ackerman steering system, the wheel towards the inside of the turn turns with a smaller radius with respect to the outer wheels. Having the wheels turn about the same point increase the stability of and cause a smoother turn. Figure 7 represents the typical setup for an Ackerman steering system. 9

20 Figure 7: Ackerman Steering Arrangement [9] The brake rotors are understood to be used for braking purposes. Usually the brake rotors in average cars is a solid flat piece of cast iron that goes around the hub. The braking calipers that are fixed to the suspension uprights have the braking pads that cause the sliding friction when in contact with the brake rotors during braking. The braking rotor material is typically replaced with aluminum instead of cast iron in a racecar to reduce the weight placed on the car. For further reduction of weight, holes and slots are made on the rotors. The holes and slots also serve the purpose of reduction of heat transfer by allowing air to flow through the respective slots. The hub is another area where weight reduction is a key concern. The hub is the central portion of the wheel which connects to and rotates along with the axle. A specific axle design used to reduce weight and increase power transmission is the usage of an integrated spider tripod with a tripod hub/housing as shown in Fig 8. The tripod although improves the performance of the vehicle, it also increases production time and complexity. 10

21 Figure 8: Integrated Tripod Hub Junction [10] 1.4 Survey of Related Standards The suspension design followed all the FSAE rules. T2.3 - The car must have a wheelbase of at least 1525 mm (60 inches). The wheelbase is measured from the center of ground contact of the front and rear tires with the wheels pointed straight ahead [1]. T2.4 - The smaller track of the vehicle (front or rear) must be no less than 75% of the larger track [1]. T The car must be equipped with a fully operational suspension system with shock absorbers, front and rear, with usable wheel travel of at least 50.8 mm (2 inches), 25.4 mm (1 inch) jounce and 25.4 (1 inch) rebound while the driver is seated [1]. T All of the suspension mounting points must be visible at Technical Inspection either by direct view or by removing any covers [1]. T6.2 - The vehicle must have sufficient ground clearance to prevent any portion of the car, other than the tires, from touching the ground during track events [1]. 11

22 T7.1 - The car must be equipped with a braking system that acts on all four wheels and is operated by a single control [1]. AF5.1 - Good analysis practice must be used and all assumptions and modeling approximations are subject to approval during the SRC process. This includes but is not limited to mechanical properties, mesh size and mesh quality [1]. Standards from ASTM and ASME were also followed to choose the correct bearing and materials for the suspension design. Automotive/Industrial rolling bearing element standards were followed to ensure a safe design. 1.5 Discussion Section 1 of this report informs the reader of some of the concepts that have been previously researched before starting the suspension design process. The information learned from the literature survey and the standards provided were used and taken into consideration because maintaining a low weight is one of the team's objectives, but more importantly maintaining a reasonable factor of safety. This competition is another way for the entire FIU FSAE team to display all of their knowledge they have gathered and applied through the design and manufacturing process. 12

23 2. PROJECT FORMULATION 2.1 Overview A senior design project is required to be completed by a student studying mechanical engineering in order to graduate. The project is required to be designed and manufactured. Team O has chosen to design the suspension design in order to help increase FIU s FSAE ranking in the upcoming competition. The suspension is a very important subsystem in the FSAE car, because the competition has an autocross theme. An autocross type of race focuses more on the turning speed rather than the straight-line speed due to the design of the course having continuous turns. The FIU s FSAE team is fairly new compared to most of the university teams and therefore face the lack of information and funds, but the team has been improving every year and this is dues to continuous design projects that target specific aspects of the car which greatly improves the performance of each component. 2.2 Project Objectives An objective the team wishes to accomplish, is to obtain a score of 20 out of 25 in the suspension design portion of the competition. This will be done by providing valuable data that supports all design considerations that were taken into account. The suspension design has been designed considering various principles, like the Ackerman steering geometry and various design iterations, that allowed for the proposed suspension geometry. Another objective is that the team wants to maintain the overall completion of all the static and dynamic events that take place in the FSAE competition in Michigan. Last year s car was able to successfully complete all the events, and therefore, for this competition, the team wants to ensure that the car will also complete all the events by maintaining a safe design. 13

24 In result, the overall objective is to place is to place in the top 50, as a collaborative team. This includes every team of FSAE scores to come together representing FIU, and all the knowledge we have gained as student s. Once every part of our car has been recorded and given a score the judges will combine each section and compare them to other Team s final scores to place rankings. Each year the FSAE Team is doing their best to be able to continue to strive and prove themselves once more. 2.3 Design Specifications The suspension system is composed of many components and the team has ensured that they all fit and perform according to how they are designed. The design must be efficient and more importantly safe, and this was done by following all the FSAE rules and corresponding standards. The team also has to ensure that the suspension system is compatible with the chassis and this was accomplished by maintaining constant communication with the chassis team. All suspension design considerations were designed with the overall purpose of increasing the performance of the car. The suspension design is only regulated by a few parameters which include wheelbase, track, ride height, wheel travel, jounce, and rebound. The team has designed the suspension in a way that these parameters were met, by choosing a double wishbone independent suspension system that has a preset camber and steering inclination to maximize performance [7]. In order to obtain better scores in all of the events, the suspension was optimized for autocross type events were turning speeds plays a more important role than straight line speed. Various changes were made to various designs were minimum weight and optimal factor of safety for specific components are proposed and these are shown in the alternative design section. 14

25 2.4 Addressing Global Design While designing the suspension, the team took into account as many global design considerations as possible. Material selection, ease manufacturing, and calculations done in SI and US units are examples of some considerations that were taken. A multi-language catalog that describes the manufacturing steps along with the assembly steps is provided in three languages to address global considerations. When choosing materials, the team took into account the accessibility of the material in various places around the world in order to choose an easy, strong, and accessible material. Through the material selection the team tried to be as efficient with weight savings as possible. Having low weight allows the car to have a smaller displacement engine which overall lowers emissions. Having low emissions has been a global issue that most car manufacturer are greatly concerned with and constantly finding new ways to improve it. The improved suspension design also allows for less tire wear and brake wear, therefore reducing the amount of needed material wasted. 2.5 Constraints and Other Considerations There are a few constraints that the team faced which included timing, manufacturing, and budgeting. Time was a constraint because there were many deadlines that needed to be met in order to qualify for competition. Other deadlines were given to the team by the overall FIU SAE team in order to be able to follow the set deadlines for each component. The team was required to complete design and manufacturing in a shorter time, compared to the rest of the senior design team in order to guarantee that the car will be completed three months before the competition in order to perform testing and validation. 15

26 Manufacturing was also a constraint because the equipment and machines that the team has available are not precise enough to make certain components that were designed therefore some of the components needed to be outhouse manufactured. While the team designed the components, certain manufacturing details were taken into account in order to ease manufacturing and cost. Due to global design consideration, certain manufacturing considerations were taken in order to satisfy and easy manufacturing process. Tight budget was also a constraint since the team is relatively new. The entire FIU FSAE team has a small budget, therefore every subsystem needs to be as efficient and cheap as possible in order for the whole car to be completed. Some of the designs proposed were rejected due to manufacturing cost. The designs rejected have lower weight, but required more manufacturing therefore driving cost up. In order to save as much money possible, the team manufactured as many components as possible in house. 2.6 Discussions FIU s FSAE team is relatively a new team where limited budget, time, and manufacturing were some of the main constraints that the team had to overcome. While overcoming some of these challenges, this senior design team had the task to design a suspension that will fix all the previous problems faced. While taking into account global design considerations. The team has a design objective of having the minimum possible weight for the overall suspension system. While maintaining a design objective, the Team also wants to achieve a score of 20 out of 25 in the suspension design portion of the competition and place less than 50 in the overall competition rankings. 16

27 3. DESIGN ALTERNATIVES 3.1 Overview of Conceptual Designs Developed There are various components that have been modified in order to optimize them in terms of weight, performance, and cost. These are some of the main factors that the team closely considered while choosing the proposed design. Reducing weight while maintaining a safe factor of safety was one of the design considerations that the team was closely looking into while evaluating the alternative designs. In the following sections a list of alternative designs are shown in order to see some of the different design options that were considered. The main two components that are going to be shown in the alternative designs are going to be the different uprights and hubs that were looked into. The suspension system design is not heavily regulated and therefore various changes were made to all components. Various iterative changes were made in order to reduce weight by removing material from places that would not create a major change in the factor of safety of each component. Some of these design considerations also were rejected due to manufacturing costs since it is one of the categories that the team had to pay attention to. All of the following design alternatives for both the uprights and the hubs will be based in the use of Aluminum 6061-T6 as their selected material. 3.2 Design Alternative 1 Figure 9 shows the first front upright alternative design that was first designed, but have moved away from. The first design alternative consists of a front upright along with a front hub and a rear upright. This design was a very early stage design where the team was first introducing some of the basic concepts that had been passed down by the previous members. 17

28 Figure 9: First Front Upright Alternative Design This design shows a complete front upright design with a steering axis inclination as shown by the blue line in the figure above and preset camber considerations. This designed was not chosen due to its weight and areas of high stress concentration which were obtained by performing simulation analysis on it. Another downfall to this design was that the required geometry to satisfy the Ackerman geometry was not able to be incorporated with this type of upright. The mounting position for the brake caliper was another detail that was changed after designing this upright. This design was a very early stage design where the team was trying to incorporate various key design considerations like steering axis inclination, camber adjustability, and a fixed steering arm. The steering arm required to satisfy the Ackerman geometry would be too long and therefore this design was discarded. [13] Valuable information was kept and utilized in the following alternative designs. 18

29 Figure 10: First Front Hub Alternative Design Along with the first front upright design alternative an alternative front hub was also designed. Figure 10 shows the first front hub alternative design. The hub is designed with the intent to be able to use the previous wheels the previous car used in order to save some money. This hub was heavy and had a lot of manufacturing issues that were noticed and later on improved [11]. Some of the manufacturing issues were small radii that were used would make manufacturing more expensive due to the fact that custom tools would need to be purchased, therefore standard radii were considered in order to use standard tools which overall would lower manufacturing cost. There were many stress concentration areas that were found while running simulation studies and with this information further changes were made by creating fillets and increasing diameters throughout the design. Certain sections of the hub were reduced in terms of volume in order to decrease weight. The reduction of the certain areas does not greatly affect the factor of safety of the component. Further improvements can be seen in the following alternative designs. 19

30 Figure 11: First rear upright alternative design The first proposed real upright alternative design proved to be a great challenge at the beginning of the design phase because there was a great difficulty incorporating the rest of the components that needed to be attached. The factor of safety was also below 1, and therefore the team had to discard this design. As shown in Fig. 11 the size of the first rear upright is relatively large compared to last year s rear upright and the team decided to try to make the design smaller, which can be seen in the next design alternative. 3.3 Design Alternative 2 After an increased amount of testing it was determined that the previous design alternative was too weak and could be improved. This design alternative is more robust and has a higher factor of safety. Figure 12 shows the second front upright design alternative. 20

31 Figure 12: Second Front Upright Alternative Design Even though this upright is 0.03 pounds heavier that the first front upright alternative design its factor of safety is considerably higher with less stress concentration regions. The mounting position of the brake caliper was optimized by taking advantage of its position to optimize braking efficiency. Another design consideration that was approached in this design was having a removable steering arm. This would allow for changes and modifications if needed to adjust suspension geometry. Slight modifications were made to the previous front hub in order to improve its factor of safety by modifying areas where it would experience high stress concentration levels. This was done by adding various fillets in order to remove sharp corners and also shaving some material that was not needed in order to decrease the hubs weight. Figure 13 shows the second front hub design alternative. 21

32 Figure 13: Second Front Hub Alternative Design The second proposed front hub design has an integrated thread at the end because the team tried to add a safety nut at the end, but this proved to be very costly and was one of the main reasons the team did not continue with that specific aspect of the design. The front hub design is an improvement of the first front hub design alternative where the team modified and made changes to the weak areas the previous hub was encountering. Figure 14: Second Rear Upright Alternative Design 22

33 A new rear upright was designed and is shown in the Fig. 14. This new designed was much lighter and proved to be stronger than the first design. Some of the disadvantages that this design had was certain areas were too thin, and this caused a concern for the team. The main regions that were too thin was the top portion where the control arms bracket would be attached to. This region experiences very large forces and this type of design acts like a cantilever, therefore the team decided to concentrate in modifying this region. This design was then analyzed and through various modifications the weak areas that were found using simulation were strengthened. This second alternative was chosen as the baseline for the team's proposed design because it was very light, stable, and had a good factor of safety. 3.4 Integration of Global Design Elements Various global design elements were considered while designing all the suspension components. Most of the global design elements deal with ease of manufacturing. While selecting radii sizes tool selection was kept into account in order to be able to use standard tools in order to ease manufacturing. Material selection was kept constant through all design alternatives in order to have an equal and fair comparison between the designs. This allowed the suspension team to see what design characteristics created a large impact on the design. The material selection for the uprights and hubs was also a global aspect that was looked into. When the team selected the material of the upright and hub various manufacturing processes were researched in order to make sure the design would not be too expensive. The tolerances chosen were also considered a global design by selecting tolerances that people could achieve in different places. 23

34 3.5 Feasibility Assessment The feasibility assessment that was performed for the designed alternatives was mostly based on various simulation results and manufacturing cost estimates. Through various iterations weight, cost, and factor of safety were all changed until the team reached a balanced alternative. The team had to sacrifice some weight savings due to high manufacturing cost, but this does not affect the performance greatly. Safety and effective design were some of the things the team focused on. Factor of safety, weight, ease of manufacturing, time of manufacturing and cost were some of the main aspect that the team focused throughout the design alternatives process, which has allowed the team to choose a proposed design that will be talked in the next section. 3.6 Proposed Design The proposed senior design that the team has chosen is based of all the knowledge gathered from all the design changes and iterations performed through all the alternative designs for each component. The proposed design features a lightweight design that takes into account manufacturability, feasibility, and cost. The design is much lighter than previous year s suspension design, and it maintains a high factor of safety. The proposed front upright as shown in Fig. 15 is based on the second upright design alternative because it has the required geometry, which includes the Ackerman geometry, and the steering axis inclination. 24

35 Figure 15: Proposed Front Upright Design The purpose of incorporating the Ackerman geometry is to take advantage of tire slip in order to improve steering performance which will greatly impact performance. With Ackerman steering, if we can toe out the inside wheel sufficiently, there is greater drag on the inside wheel than the outside wheel, thus creating an oversteer torque around the vehicle center of gravity. This will help turn in, or in his words "yaw the vehicle into the corner [21]. The Ackerman steering geometry is set by the removable steering link that attaches to the upright. This design also has no threatening high stress concentration areas and no deformation concerns. 25

36 Figure 16: Proposed Front Hub Design The proposed front hub as shown in Fig. 16 is based on a combination of both alternative designs in order to minimize weight and eliminate any stress concentration areas. Various changes were made to the places where the radii would change by adding fillets and making sure all the radii where machinable with standard tools. The front hub design has not changed much, and all of the main focused design changes were made to increase its strength and factor of safety. Figure 17: Proposed Rear Upright Design 26

37 The proposed rear upright is shown in Fig. 17 and it is based on the second design alternative. This design is reinforced in the top portion of the upright in order to obtain a higher factor of safety. The thickness was increased because the upright was going to experience high loads and the team wanted to guarantee a safe design. The positioning of the brake calipers was also determined and shown in this proposed design. Figure 18: Proposed Rear Hub Design The proposed rear hub is shown in Fig. 18 and it is different from last year s design because this hub has an integrated tripod bearing which will be attached to a shaft which will transfer the torque from the differential. This proposed integrated rear hub will provide for a greater torque transfer and a reduction of weight of the overall suspension system. All of the proposed design concepts will be explained in greater detail in Chapter 5 of this report where all the simulations and the calculations used for each component are explained. 3.7 Discussion Through the various design alternatives, the team could improve the overall design of the suspension. This allowed the team to gather and obtain new valuable information that will be 27

38 passed down through the group for future suspension designs. Through various iteration of the alternative design the team was able to choose a final design which is the team's proposed design. This design gathers every engineering concept we could incorporate into it in order to optimize it and make it as effective as possible while maintaining cost, factor of safety and manufacturability into account. 28

39 4. PROJECT MANAGEMENT 4.1 Overview The workload was divided evenly as balanced as possible, to ensure that every member would get good experience of real world jobs and projects that can be bestowed upon them. There were several steps and many different designs and simulations that were ran and split up to be able to divide such workloads. As workloads were given to whomever preferred certain sections, and then the rest was divided as equal as possible. 4.2 Gantt Chart The Team s time frames for each process of the project are as followed: Table 1: Gantt Chart 4.3 Division of Responsibilities Among Team Members Project Title Table 2: Teamwork Responsibility Chart 29

40 FSAE Suspension System Team Members Member (1): Yussimil Libera Member (2): Michael Benitez Member (3): Ali Qureshi Member (4): Mateo Restrepo Task M (1) M (2) M (3) M (4) Mark X to indicate responsibility area. 1. Introduction 1.1 Problem Statement X 1.2 Motivation X X 1.3 Literature Survey X X X 1.4 Survey of Related Standards X 1.5 Discussion X 2. Project Formulation 2.1 Overview X 2.2 Project Objectives X X X 2.3 Design Specifications X X 30

41 2.4 Addressing Global Design X 2.5 Constraints and Other Considerations X 2.6 Discussion X 3. Design Alternatives 3.1 Overview of Conceptual Designs Developed X X X X 3.2 Design Alternate 1 X X 3.3 Design Alternate 2 X X 3.4 Integration of Global Design Elements X 3.5 Feasibility Assessment X 3.6 Proposed Design X X 3.7 Discussion X 4. Project Management 4.1 Overview X 4.2 Gantt Chart X X X X 4.3 Breakdown of Responsibilities X X X X 4.4 Discussion X 5. Engineering Design and Analysis 5.1 Overview X 5.2 Kinematic Analysis and Animation X X X 31

42 5.3 Dynamic/Vibration Analysis of the System X X 5.4 Structural Design X X 5.5 Force Analysis X X 5.6 Stress Analysis X X 5.7 Material Selection X X 5.8 Design Based on Static and Fatigue Failure Design Theories X X 5.9 Deflection Analysis X 5.10 Component Design/Selection X X X X 5.11 Design Overview X 5.12 Cost Analysis X X 5.13 Discussion X 9. Design Experience 6. Prototype Construction 6.1 Overview X X 6.2 Description of Prototype X X 6.3 Prototype Design X X 6.4 Parts List X X X X 6.5 Construction 6.6 Prototype Cost Analysis 6.7 Discussion X X 7. Testing and Evaluation 32

43 7.1 Testing and Evaluation X X X X 7.2 Overview X X 7.3 Design of Experiments X X 7.4 Test Results and Data X X 7.5 Improvement of the Design X X 7.6 Discussion X X 8. Design Considerations 8.1 Health and Safety X X 8.2 Assembly and Disassembly X 8.3 Manufacturability X X 8.4 Maintenance of the System X X X 8.5 Environmental Impact and Sustainability X X 8.6 Economic Impact X X 8.7 Risk Assessment X X 9. Design Experience 9.1 Overview X 9.2 Standards Used in the Project X X X 9.3 Contemporary Issues X 9.4 Impact of Design in a Global and Societal Context X X X 9.5 Professional and Ethical Responsibility X X 9.6 Life-Long Learning Experience X X 33

44 9.7 Discussion X X 10. Conclusion 10.1 Conclusion and Discussion X X 10.2 Evaluation of Integrated Global Design Aspects X X 10.3 Evaluation of Intangible Experiences X X 10.4 Future Work X X 4.4 Discussion The team has split the work evenly in order to ensure that every team member can contribute to the overall design experience. The team members were allowed to choose certain areas that they preferred. Then afterwards the remaining topics were separated evenly. Even though the tasks were separated, the team members communicated and worked with each other in order to design and meet all requirements. There are many challenges that are faced every day, but as a team they are able to come together and figure out each challenge one day at a time. 34

45 5. ENGINEERING DESIGN AND ANALYSIS 5.1 Overview This chapter will be talking about the kinematic and dynamic calculations and simulations conducted determining the design of the suspension. This chapter will also be looking at materials chosen for the components, as well as safety factors obtained from mechanical design static and fatigue failure theories. Furthermore, at the end of the chapter a projected cost analysis can be found for this project. 5.2 Kinematic Analysis The entire suspension can be modeled as a four-bar robotics system with the upright being the coupler link, the upper A-arms as a link, the lower A-arm as another link, and the A-arms are fixed to the chassis of the vehicle which will be considered as the ground link. A generic four-bar system can be seen in the figure below with the respective nomenclature for the analysis. In FSAE rules, specifications for the upright s allowed movement is given, and it is understood that for this system a type 2 double rocker must be designed according to Grashof s Rule. Grashof s rule simply states that a type 1 mechanism is a mechanism that satisfies the below equation, and a type 2 mechanism is a mechanism that doesn t satisfy the below equation [8]. It is necessary for a type 2 mechanism to be used, because none of the parts should be able to do a full rotation. (1) In this equation, s is used for the shortest link, l is used for the longest link, and p and q stand for the intermediate link lengths. 35

46 Figure 19: Generic Four-Bar Linkage The specifications of the upright s vertical movements were given, so this problem was treated as a synthesis problem in determining the suspension points (i.e. A0 and B0 positions according to the figure above). In order to calculate a four-bar synthesis the below matrix equations should be used for A0 and B0 respectively [4]. (2) The same analysis is conducted to determine the B0 positions. Once the A0 and B0 positions are determined, those positions can be used to determine the link lengths needed to synthesize the mechanism. The figure below represents the common outcome that resulted from the calculations. 36

47 Figure 20: Synthesized Link Lengths These are the generally, calculated the lengths of the A-arms and specified the length of the upright. A position analysis was conducted for Ackerman steering. As explained before Ackerman steering is accomplished by having the front and rear wheels rotate about the same point. The following figure compares Ackerman angles of 21, 25, and 29 [6]. Figure 21: Outer Wheel Steering Ackerman vs Inner Wheel Steering Ackerman 37

48 5.3 Dynamic Analysis of the System A dynamic analysis was conducted to determine the required bearings that would be needed to be used within the uprights. Timken catalogs were used to determine the correct bearings for this application. To determine which bearings to use, a C10 value was calculated to be used for the Timken catalogs [16]. The equation below is used to calculate the C10 value. (3) In the above equation, Fe is the combined force of the radial force (Fr) and axial force (Fa) and P is a coefficient that is calculated through set parameters depending on the type of bearings and the life of the bearings. The table below shows the assumptions and nomenclature used to calculate the Fe (Eq. 4) and P (Eq. 5). Table 3: Assumptions Used for Bearings Calculations In Eq. 4, the coefficients X and Y are determined using the catalogs, and an iterative process changes the X and Y values within the catalogs. (4) (5) 38

49 Table 3 defines all the parameters in Eq. 5, except for xd, which is calculated in Eq. 6 and depends on the speed and life of the bearings [13]. (6) The force acting on the wheels is determined using percent rear-front weight distribution. Also, further weight division was done, because a left turn at 1.35 G-Force (g) was assumed. Therefore, the right-side wheels were considered to have a larger load. The figure below shows the weight distribution from the assumed parameters. Figure 22: Weight Distribution Among the Four Wheels on a 1.35g Left Turn [2] The total C10 value calculated was 10,500 lbf (46.7 kn). Accordingly, the deep grove ball bearings were selected using the C10 value. The figure below shows the bearings used inside the front and rear uprights. 39

50 Figure 23: Deep Groove Ball Bearings 5.4 Structural Design All the components were made from rigid material. Therefore, the deformation occurring from the components was kept minimum. Section 5.7 will discuss which components were made from which materials. The rear upright design is shown in the figure below. It was specifically designed in this manner to reduce weight, while maintaining its rigidity to hold the necessary components such as the integrated tripod hub, the deep grove ball bearings, and the A-arms. Figure 24: Rear Upright 40

51 The braking calipers were purchased due to machining restraints and close tolerance. The braking calipers that were chosen are called GP 200 Braking Calipers by Wilwood. The figure below shows the configuration setup of the braking calipers as they were purchased. Figure 25: Wilwood Braking Calipers [5] The specifications of applied force and area caused on the braking rotors from the braking calipers are shown in the table below. Table 4: Braking Caliper Specifications [5] The rear rotors were designed to integrate with the hub through the usage bolts as fasteners. The figure below shows the design of the rear brake rotor. The holes are made for weight reduction and for heat transfer reduction. 41

52 Figure 26: Rear Braking Rotor The integrated tripod hubs were designed to be fastened with braking rotors, and to fit inside the rear uprights. The integrated tripod hubs were only used in the rear because in the rear the engine and drive shaft are located, and they are providing the rear wheels the torque. The CV- Joints were removed and replaced with the integrated tripod hub. Figure 27: Integrated Tripod Hub for the Rear Only As for the front of the vehicle, the upright was required to be different. For one, the was reduced in size to reduce weight, so the upright need to be modified and adjusted to fit the hub. Also, the front wheels control the steering, so instead of having places to mount the A-arms, the 42

53 upright required to have a mount for the steering rod as well. The figure below shows the structural design of the front uprights without any mount for the steering or A-arms attached to it. Figure 28: Front Upright The rotors for the front are generally the same as those in the rear. The part of the rotors that varies is the inner connection piece to the hub. The wheel remains the same size, but the hub was reduced in size. Therefore, the rotors account for that change by decreasing the inner diameter. The structural design of the front hub is shown in the figure below. 43

54 Figure 29: Front Hubs As mentioned before, the front uprights require for an additional mount for the steering rods to attach to. The figure shows the steering rods that will be manufactured and attached to the front uprights, and will be the acting mounts for the steering rods. Figure 30: Steering Rod Mounts 44

55 5.5 Force Analysis Calculated estimations were made when determining the loadings occurring on the vehicle. The figure below shows a generic vehicle schematic with the loadings that are applied on the vehicle being designed. Figure 31: Generic Loading on the Vehicle [9] Simulations were conducted using calculated forces on different components of the suspension. The bearings are placed sitting on the hubs and fitting into the uprights. This allows the hubs to rotate and anything fixed to the hub (i.e. the rotors or rim) to rotate along with it, while maintaining the orientation of the upright. The figure below shows the different forces resulted from the bearings or the fastening bolts that are applied for simulation purposes on the hub. For the simulations loadings for the front and rear hubs differed only in quantity of applied load, not in location of the load. 45

56 Figure 32: Loading Forces on the Hub The resultant stress and factor of safety (FOS) that were determined using these loadings will be found in the next sections, section 5.6 and section 5.8 respectively. The loadings that were placed on the upright are shown in the figure below. As was with the hubs, the difference between the front and rear upright is the quantity of loading, but location of the load remains the same. On the uprights, there are loadings that are occurring due to the bearings, A-arm mounts, brake calipers, and for the front uprights also from the steering rods. 46

57 Figure 33: Loading Forces on the Uprights The resultant stresses and FOS of the uprights will be discussed in the following sections as mentioned before. The brake calipers cause a brake force that is implemented as a compression on the rotors. By there being a compressive pressure generated between the braking pads braking occurs. A schematic of the braking system is shown in the figure below. The compressive pressure exerted on the rotors from each brake pad is roughly 400 psi. The calipers cause a force of 600 lbf on the rotors, as shown in the figure. 47

58 Figure 34: Forces Caused by the Braking Calipers [10] The compressive force multiplied by the coefficient of friction, generates a friction force which causes a torque opposing the direction of motion. This torque approximately is caused to be 550 lbf *ft for the purposes of simulations [10]. The figure below shows the representation of the applied torque on the rotors. Figure 35: Braking Torque Loading In the above figure, it is to be noted that as that torque is applied on the rotors, an equivalent magnitude of torque is on the upright to which the calipers are mounted on. 48

59 5.6 Stress Analysis After running the simulations by applying the loads mentioned in the previous section, the following were the simulated results pertaining to the stresses occurring on the components. The figure below shows the stresses occurring on the rear hub, the integrated tripod hub. Figure 36: Rear Hub Stress Simulation Result Most of the component is affected by only small amounts of stress. The largest stress occurring is in the groove shown in the above figure. The value of the largest stress is approximately 3500 psi. The results for the front upright are also shown in the figure below. Again, the stresses are due to the forces that were mentioned in section 5.5 that are being applied on the upright. 49

60 Figure 37: Front Upright Stress Simulation Result The maximum stress yielded to be about psi. In the above it cannot be clearly seen where the maximum stress is occurring. The figure below is larger scaled and oriented differently to show where the maximum stress is occurring. 50

61 Figure 38: Reoriented and Scaled In View of the Front Upright Stress Simulation Result The maximum stress is occurring on the edge of the hole where the lower A-arm will be mounted. The A-arms are one of the key weights that are applied on the uprights. 5.7 Material Selection To maintain reduction in weight and maintain a low cost, all the components were of Aluminum, except for the control arms and the rotors Aluminum is a highly-used material because aluminum is considerably light weight, cost effective, and easily machined. The control arms, on the other hand, are made of 4130 standard alloy steel because the control arms require more strength and don t require high levels of machining. Most racecars use carbon fiber control arms for weight reduction and rigidity. Carbon fiber arms were not used for this project because of the high cost of purchasing carbon fiber. The rotors were also made of standard carbon steel because higher strength, higher rigidity, and lower thermal deformation were required for the braking rotors. 51

62 5.8 Design Based on Static and Fatigue Failure Design Theories When determining the factor of safety (FOS), the distortion energy theory (i.e. Von Mises Theory) was used. This theory states the following relationship for determining the FOS when principal stresses σ1, σ2, and σ3 are known [2]. (7) In the above equation, Sy represents the yields stress which is material dependent and n represents the FOS of the component. Accordingly, the simulations ran the calculations and determined the FOS of the components. The figure below shows the FOS for the rear hub from the results of the simulation. The minimum FOS for the rear hub was determined to be 5.7. Figure 39: Factor of Safety of the Rear Hub 52

63 The simulations also used the distortion energy theorem to calculate the FOS for the front uprights. As a result, the front uprights had a minimum FOS of 3.05, and the results are shown in the figure below. Figure 40: Factor of Safety of the Front Uprights As a comparison, the table below compares the previous year s front upright simulation results with this year s front upright simulation results. Table 5: Year to Year Comparison of Front Upright Simulation Results Current Year Previous Year Life Cycles 2.6 * * 10 5 FOS Weight (grams) It can clearly be seen that from the previous, although there was a slight increase in the weight of the front upright, there was an increase in the factor of safety and in the number of life cycles. 5.9 Deflection Analysis The deflection analysis was done on the front uprights for the caliper mounts. As mentioned before, the torque the brake pads cause about the rotors to slow them down happens to cause a torque in the opposite direction on the calipers. Because the calipers are fixed on the respective 53

64 mounts on the upright, the torque causes deflection to occur on the mounts. Therefore, this analysis is necessary and was conducted. The results of the simulation are shown below in the figure. Figure 41: Front Uprights Deformation Simulation Results The maximum deflection is occurring on the further ends of the mounts as was expected. The deflection at that location is approximately in, which isn t a whole lot, but over time through wear it is possible for this deflection to become an issue. When looking at the rear wheel upright, the maximum deformation occurs in the same place as it does for the front upright. The maximum deformation the simulations have shown to occur on the rear uprights is during braking, and the maximum deformation approximately twice that of the front upright as shown in the figure below. 54

65 Figure 42: Rear Uprights Deformation Simulation Results The total deformation occurring is in, which is still not a large quantity. There is more deformation occurring on the rear uprights is because of the larger weight supported in the rear and the larger weight transfer that occurs during braking and cornering Component Design/Selection The final designs chosen to be used and taken to the next stage of manufacturing were the designs that resulted in the best simulations, and the highest factors of safety. The simulation results for the alternative designs were not shown in this report to prevent bafflement that could occur from the large quantity of data. 55

66 5.11 Design Overview The integrated tripod hub was designed to replace the current rear hub because the tripod spider which normally would go into a CV joint is attached to the drive axel, which is in the rear. By removing the CV joint, the rear hub is to hold the tripod spider in its own housing. Figure 43: Complete Rear Assembly The figure above shows the complete assembly of the rear suspension. After the necessary adjustments were made to the front upright for inclusion of the A-arm mounts and for the steering arm mount, the projected design was finalized for the front suspension. The following figure shows the projected design for the front suspension as a complete assembly. Figure 44: Complete Front Assembly 56

67 5.12 Cost Analysis The total projected cost for the project can be seen in the tables below. This table shows the total estimated costs of the project. Table 6: Total Projected Cost of the Project The table below shows the breakdown of the project s cost (i.e. the cost of all the individual components and quantity of the components). Table 7: Breakdown of the Project's Projected Cost The reason the costs appear to be high is because the projected costs included the possibility of utilizing external resources for manufacturing. Most of the manufacturing was done in-house (i.e. by the team). Therefore, the total costs of the project were reduced. 57

68 5.13 Discussion The suspension was designed to the best capabilities as possible within the allotted time frame. There are places were modifications are still possibly, but not necessarily feasible. As an example, the usage of carbon fiber A-arms instead of the 4130-standard alloy steel A-arms. This would increase the performance of the racecar by reducing a significant amount of weight, but for the given budget and other constraints, it is not feasible to manufacture such items. Likewise other changes were also possible to made after the simulations were conducted, but weren t made because of feasibility and deadlines. Overall, the weight was reduced from the racecars of the previous years, and the factor of safety was increased. 58

69 6. PROTOTYPE CONSTRUCTION 6.1 Overview The Prototype is being constructed with exact materials that were used on simulations and designs previously stated. The Prototype will be used in a real scenario of competition. Using FSAE guidelines and rules. A vehicle has been entered in an international competition that will contain all the proposed designs and the prototype. Due to a low budget, there will only be one prototype, and this prototype will be used on competition day. So, a large focus was placed on making a design and completing manufacturing with minimal errors and changes. In this section the reader will understand how the suspension was designed, manufactured, and assembled. 6.2 Description of Prototype The prototype is manufactured based on the designs that were made and simulated previously. The prototype is being made in house, as for most of the parts are being outsourced. Once all the parts come together, the assembly will be made thus connecting the assembly to the team s chassis creating a usable prototype that can be tested. The suspension design that the team has put together was improved based on last year s designs and this new prototype will be used by the next season FIU FSAE suspension team and will be furthered improved on. This new suspension system features an improved suspension geometry, and an improved overall weight reduction with the addition of an integrated rear tripod hub. The uprights and hubs are made of Aluminum 6061 which is the same material as last year's uprights. The components that have been redesigned are the uprights because they have an axis of inclination, the rear hubs have an integrated tripod, the suspension geometry was improved in order to achieve optimal camber when turning in order to provide maximum grip. The spacers that position the bearings 59

70 that hold the control arms did not have to be manufactured because the bearing used had the spacers already. The brackets that hold the control arms were redesigned in order to lower their weight. The size of the rotors increased in order to achieve better braking. New brake calipers were also purchased which have a larger braking force. 6.3 Prototype Design The prototype design is based on multiple iterations that were taken during the beginning stages of the project. The prototype is brought to life through the many hours taken of the design process. As this team is responsible for the suspension that was our focus. Other teams were also in play to create the whole formula kit car. The main team that was referred to by the suspension team was the team that made the design of the chassis. Referring to the chassis, mounting points were then found and designs started to flourish. The main components that make up the suspension are the uprights, hubs, rotors, brake calipers, bearings, control arms, push and pull rods, bellcranks, shock absorbers, suspension mounts, and the wheels and tires. The wheels and the tires are being reused from last season. The following designs and assemblies that were inputted in the car are below Front Assembly The front assembly is made up of tire, wheel, upright, hub, rotor, brake caliper, control arms and mounts, bearings, camber shims, steering arm, pull/push rod, bellcrank, shock and their respective hardware. Each component was designed with the overall goal of maintaining a high factor of safety while having a low weight. The figure below shows the front assembly of the suspension. 60

71 Figure 45: Front Assembly 3D View Even though the tires and wheel were kept from last season the team did plan accordingly and all the suspension components resemble and apply the best possible geometry. The tires were previously chosen because they are lightweight and are suited for the type of racing the car will face. The front uprights have been redesigned by using iterative process in order to maximize its strength and lower its weight while keeping manufacturing cost down. The uprights hold the steering arm which was designed using Ackerman geometry. The uprights were sent to be manufactured because the team did not have the required machinery in order to make them which the precision required. The upright and the hub are both made with the same material which is Aluminum 6061 which is very strong, affordable, and very machinable which were some of the criterias that the team was looking for when choosing a material so that it would meet global 61

72 concerns. The front hubs were based on last year s design, but were improved in respect o their strength and by having lower weight. The following figure shows the configuration of the front control arms and the location of the pull/push rod that is attached to the bellcrank which attaches to the shock. The control arms are shaped in a triangle shaped and are welded together by a plate which has set wholes where bearing was placed in order for the arms to be able to move vertically about a pivot point. This suspension geometry allows for a large amount of ride height manipulation and also provides optimal shock use which will ultimately allow the car to brake faster and turn faster. Figure 46: Front Control Arms, Push/Pull Rods, and Bellcrank Assembly From the figure below the reader can see an exploded view of all the components and how they all come together. From the figure the reader will notice that the team decided to use two bearings which are press fitted into the uprights and to finally make sure everything stays in place an expanding ring pin was used. In order to adjust camber shims were made and placed between the 62

73 control arm mounts and the upright. A preset camber was established but with upcoming testing the team will determine which camber is optimal. Figure 47: Front Upright and Hub Assembly Rear Assembly The rear assembly is made up of tire, wheel, upright, rotor, brake caliper, control arms and mounts, bearings, rear tripod hub, camber shims, pull/push rod, bellcrank, shock and their respective hardware. Again, each component was designed with the overall goal of maintaining a high factor of safety while having a low weight. The figure below shows the rear assembly of the suspension. 63

74 Figure 48: Rear Assembly 3D View The rear wheel and tires as stated were the same as last year s team. Due to knowing the dimensions of the tires and mount locations the rods were brought to life. The rods were made using the best geometry as possible. The team s biggest concerns were budget so the material and designs heavily weighed on that constraint. The achievement was to be as light and as strong as possible, while still maintaining the strong factor of safety. Below is the assembly of the arms that are located in the rear. As mentioned above, the material is aluminum 6061, and the control arms are welded together and use a bearing to manipulate ride height as best as possible. Thus, making it possible for tighter turns and faster accelerations and stops. 64

75 Figure 49: Rear Control Arms, Push/Pull Rods, and Bellcrank Assembly The depiction below is the assembly of the tire and hub in the rear. As we can see everything is basically the same as the front assembly. The difference between the two is mainly the hub. The hub in the rear has the tripod housing, which is used to transfer the power to the wheels. The tripod was made to create more contact to create more efficiency of transferring of power, and lighten the weight that is on the previous team s hub. The upright also has a slight change when comparing to the front. 65

76 Figure 50: Rear Upright and Hub Assembly 6.4 Parts List Table 8: 2017 Suspension Parts List Part Number Part Description Quantity 0001 Front Bellcrank Front Bellcrank Mount Front Shock Mount Rear Bellcrank Rear Bellcrank Mount Rear Shock Mount Left Front Lower A-arm Mount 2 66

77 0008 Left Front Upper A-arm Mount Right Front Lower A-arm Mount Right Front Upper A-arm Mount Left Rear Lower A-arm Mount Left Rear Upper A-arm Mount Right Rear Lower A-arm Mount Right Rear Upper A-arm Mount End Rods for A-arms Front Housing Hub Rear Tripod Housing Hub Spider Tripod Bearing Front Upright Steering Rod Mount Rear Upright Front Rotor Rear Rotor 2 67

78 0024 Ball Bearings Wilwood Brake Caliper Construction The team began placing orders for manufacturing late November/early December. Some delays in the order and school budgeting caused the orders to be significantly delayed. The parts were received in late January. The manufacturing process was thus delayed and began once the parts started to come in. Fiat Chrysler Automobiles (FCA) accelerated the timetable for this project s manufacturing completion. The team was required to complete the entire manufacturing process within two and a half week. Machining took place in the FIU student machine shop located next to the main engineering and computer science building. The tubing bought from McMaster were machined first to construct the A-arms. The tubes were cut into their respect lengths, slotted for easy of attachment, threaded for rob end attachment, and welded together. Jigs were constructed for the welding process for the A-arms and for the mounting tabs on the chassis of the vehicle. Each wheel was assembled independently before mounting them to the chassis. Assembly of the wheels consisted of a few steps. The first step attached the A-arm mounts to the uprights. The next step connected the upright to their respective hub making sure the respective rotor attached between them. Then the brake calipers and respective A-arms were attached completing the suspension assembly of one wheel. A more detailed list of instructions of the manufacturing process can be found in multiple languages in Appendix C of this report. Appendix B consists of a manufacturing photo album for this report. 68

79 6.6 Prototype Cost Analysis Table 9: Cost Analysis Breakdown Item Quantity Cost Zinc Yellow-Chromate Plated Hex Head Screw Grade 8 Steel, 1/4" $9.93 Thread, 1-1/4" Long, Partially Threaded Alloy Steel Wire-Lockable Socket Head Screw 8-32 Thread Size, 3/4" 10 $9.93 Long Zinc Yellow-Chromate Plated Hex Head Screw Grade 8 Steel, 1/4" $14.75 Thread Size, 1-3/4" Long High-Strength Steel Nylon-Insert Locknut Grade 8, Zinc Yellow- 50 $7.04 Chromate Plated, 1/4"-28 Thread Size 316 Stainless Steel SAE Washer for 1/4" Screw Size, 0.281" ID, 0.625" 50 $6.69 OD Alloy Steel Wire-Lockable Socket Head Screw 8-32 Thread Size, 3/8" 10 $9.16 Long Stainless Steel Internal Retaining Ring for 2-5/8" Bore Diameter 2 $ Stainless Steel Nylon-Insert Locknut 8-32 Thread Size 100 $5.24 Stainless Steel Internal Retaining Ring for 3-5/8" Bore Diameter 2 $

80 Easy-to-Weld 4130 Alloy Steel Round Tube.500" OD,.049" Wall 3 $77.49 Thickness, 6' Long RCV FSAE Rear Wheel Hub Housing Boot 2 $18.00 Wilwood Billet Caliper (GP200) 4 $ Wilwood K Brake Pad (Purple Compound GP200) 2 $88.78 RCV FSAE Lightened Tripod for Tripod Housings 2 $ Steering Arms 2 $ Left Front Upright 1 $ Right Front Upright 1 $ Left Rear Upright 1 $ Right Rear Upright 1 $ Left Front 1 $ Right Front 1 $ Left Rear 1 $ Right Rear 1 $ Front Rotors 1018 Steel 2 $

81 Rear Rotors 1018 Steel 2 $ Easy-to-Weld 4130 Alloy Steel Round Tube.500" OD,.083" Wall 3 $ Thickness, 6 Long Ball Bearing Double Sealed, for 1/4" Shaft Diameter, 5/8" OD 4 $26.24 Multipurpose 6061 Aluminum Tube 3/4" OD,.125" Wall Thickness, 1 1 $6.07 Long Easy-to-Weld 4130 Alloy Steel Round Tube.875" OD,.083" Wall 1 $10.39 Thickness, 1 Long Item # HAB-4TG, HAB-TG & HAB-T High Misalignment Series 5 $17.92 Spherical Bearings Item # HXAM-4T, HXAM-T & HXAB-T High Misalignment Series 15 $ Male Rod Ends Total $7, Discussion The prototype took the team about three months to finish. In the real world, the manufacturing stage would be quicker as budgets would be higher. With minor setbacks and configurations made as small errors became known, the team persevered through the 71

82 manufacturing stage. Putting together over 70 parts to combine them as one into the assembly that has been created and used on the car. A jig had to be made in order to properly locate the suspension tabs. Another jig was also made for the control arms in order to properly weld them in place at their correct angles. A staking tool has to be made in order to press the bearings into the control arms, which required the team to copy a design found online and hardened the made tool by heating and rapid cooling. As expected the build was completed by the end of February and testing had begun to make changes within the assembly, such as ride height and stiffness. 72

83 7. TESTING AND EVALUATION 7.1 Overview The performance of the suspension must be tested in order to adjust the suspension so that it can perform to its maximum capabilities. Through testing the team determined what the best performing camber and caster setup is. The team placed strain gages to determine the amount of deflection the control arms experience. Through testing the team was able to validate if the thickness chosen for the control arms was the best choice. The team also be placed an accelerometer in order to measure the amount of lateral G s the suspension is experiencing. Overall testing was used to improve suspension capabilities and validation of proposed design. 7.2 Design of Experiments Description of Experiments The main tests that the team wanted to run where all related to performance test. The team wants to measure the amount of G s that the car is experiencing to make sure the suspension is at its optimal configuration. The plan for this test required that the car go around a turn at full speed while an accelerometer which would be placed at the center of the car would measure the amount of G s while turning. The same accelerometer would be used to also measure the amount of G s the car experiences while braking and accelerating. Another test that the team wanted to run was to place strain gages on the control arms to determine how much deflection and force they were experiencing while turning, braking, and accelerating. 73

84 To improve lap times the team was going to time test laps while adjusting camber and toe in order to get a combination of both that the driver would find the most optimal in order to be the fastest lap. 7.3 Test Results and Data Testing has not been performed due to the car not being ready. The results the team expects to see are the about the same as the simulations show, because each component s factor of safety are very high. 7.4 Evaluation of Experiments Since test have not been able to performed there is no data that can be analyzed. The only thing that the team can provide is a built suspension that is arranged as optimally as possible according to theoretical calculations given by all the simulations. 7.5 Improvement of the Design The design can always be improved if a higher funding is provided in order to reduce weight by allowing for more complex manufacturing procedures while gaining low weight and high factor of safety. Different and lighter materials and even composites could be implemented in order to improve the current design. 7.6 Discussion Overall the team had planned several test to be performed on the suspension, but due to the car not being ready because the car was not running, the team could not perform the test. The test will be performed as soon as the car is capable of performing the tests. The information gathered from testing will be used to not only validate the suspension, but will also be handed down to the 74

85 next suspension team in order to help them have more accurate information which will help them in their design. 75

86 8. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 8.1 Health and Safety The system was design to be structurally safe, and the resultant simulation values prove the safety of the structure. It is really important to make sure the suspension has a safe design because if the suspension fails the driver s life could be at risk. Not only that, the vehicle s suspension failing could put other lives at risk as well because of the moment that is carried by the vehicle in motion. If the suspension fails, the driver wouldn t have control of the vehicle anymore which puts bystanders lives at risk. Therefore, careful consideration and simulations were conducting to validate the suspension before it is used in competition. 8.2 Assembly and Disassembly Assembly and disassembly of the suspension was kept to be as simple as possible for ease of construction and maintenance. All the bolts and nuts used have a standard pitch of 1/4-28. This means the wrench or socket necessary for assembly is a 7/16 wrench. This simplifies assembly because only a few tools are then required rather than needing a whole toolbox. The details of how to assemble the suspension are mentioned in Appendix C of this report. When assembling, any parts can be assembled in any order. But following the order mentioned in Appendix C will simplify the assembly process. 8.3 Manufacturability Majority of the manufacturing can be done by anyone who has knowledge and access to a mill, lathe, weld, and band saw. They materials being manufactured are aluminum and steel, so the respective lubricants and coolants will be necessary to have to conduct manufacturing without overloading and wearing out the manufacturing tools. There were some components that would be 76

87 able to be manufactured using the same machines, but would require higher skills. These components are better to be outsource manufactured as this team did. These components include the front and rear uprights and hubs. These parts have a more complicated geometry, and require more precision. It is likely that someone manufacturing this same suspension may not possess these skills nor the tools. Therefore, getting these components outsource manufactured will be the best option. Other components can be manufactured by an individual. These components would consist of the rotors, A-arms, mounting tabs for the chassis, and A-arm mounts for the uprights. From among these components the A-arms would require the most manufacturing. In order to manufacture the A-arms, one must use the bandsaw and cut the round tubes to the respective lengths. Then one side of the tubes must be threaded using the lather to fit the swivel rod ends. The other end of the rod is slotted using the mill. A joining piece is also milled. The slotted ends of the tubes fit on the joining piece and are tig welded in place at the correct angle. 8.4 Maintenance of the System Regular Maintenance A routine maintenance is necessary on the tires of the suspension system. The owner must always make sure the tires are inflated to the right amount to prevent extra wear from occurring on the tires. For this vehicle, it is good practice to verify tire pressure before every use because this vehicle doesn t get used often. Another routine maintenance would be changing the brake pads of the vehicle. The FSAE competition has a section that tests the vehicles braking capabilities. Besides safety which is an obvious reason, for that section of the competition it is necessary to keep the brakes working at the best performance as possible. Keeping the wheels aligned is another important maintenance that needs to be conducted in a periodic fashion to keep the vehicle at top 77

88 performance. It is also important to checking the vehicle s steering with respect to the wheels movements to prevent over steering and under steering of the vehicle Major Maintenance Major maintenance is only required on this suspension system if any of the components wear out or obtain damage from some incident. Therefore, assembly was kept as simple as possible in the case of disassembly requirement to replace any of the components. A routine check to make sure no wear exists on any of the components is recommended. All though in the testing phase the integrated tripod showed no sign of failure, it would be a good practice to keep an eye on that specific part of the system because this is the first time this team has made this type of change to the vehicle. 8.5 Environmental Impact and Sustainability The suspension designed for this vehicle was designed to increase the performance of the vehicle and to increase the smoothness in the ride. By doing such, this reduced the fuel usage, and decreased the environmental impact the system produced. It is important to note that if regular and major maintenances are not conducted on the vehicle, the performance of the vehicle decreases and the environmental impact increases. Also, the vehicle was made to be driven on graphite, asphalt, or concrete roads. Therefore, driving this vehicle on an off-road terrain will decrease its efficiency and increase the impact the vehicle has on the environment. 8.6 Economic Impact The system has a heavy initial cost, which is approximately $7,000, to manufacture. Other than that, routine maintenances on the vehicle are quite cheap in cost and time. If the system is not 78

89 maintained, then the costs would increase because of wear that occurs on the vehicle. If wear of a components becomes severe or damage occurs on any component, then the cost for replacing the component is large. Although disassembly and re-assembly of the system won t take long when replacing a component, it is recommended to conducted the necessary maintenances to prevent the vehicle from having large economic impacts. 8.7 Risk Assessment The resultant simulations from chapter 5 show that the vehicle s suspension system is safe to operate. As mentioned before, although the tests showed the operation of the system to be valid, it is important to conduct the routine maintenances and to check the system for any wears or damages that may exist to reduce the risk of operating the system. The risk of operating the system significantly increases when maintenance of the system is neglected. 79

90 9. DESIGN EXPERIENCE 9.1 Overview This section will consist of the design experience gained and learned throughout the project. Engineering standards consisting of a few different ones will be explained. Certain Contemporary issues around the engineering part of the world will also be considered throughout the manufacturing and design processes. Since, the globe is taken into consideration there are some constraints and aspects that must be considered to reach out to more individual s no matter the color, culture, or language. Since there are many codes throughout the engineering world, this project will be designed just like if it was made in a real-world setting. Being in the real world Mechanical Engineers use codes and ethical responsibilities, so this project will follow them as well. To finish off this section, lifelong learning experiences will be noted down and analyzed as to why they will be considered lifelong lessons throughout the career of an Engineer. 9.2 Standards Used in the Project For this project, there a few engineering standards that must be considered when designing the suspension for the competition car. Such standards can be identified as the SAE, FSAE, ACME, and ASTM. SAE stands for Society of Academic Engineers; this standard is used mainly for competitions. Not only Is the formula department using these standards, but any other competition like Aero and Baja Teams must use them as well. It is more of a general outline of standards for all competitors. Acme threads standards are also considered for all our bolts or any thread that shall be used in the design. ASTM stands for American Society for Testing and Materials; These standards are used for the selection of materials. Both ACME and ASTM are used mostly for the factor of safety so Engineers are all using these standards to make sure the 80

91 public is safe and anything that is manufactured is safe when correctly used. Then the main standard that will be following Mechanical Engineers everywhere is ASME, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. ASME standards include the code of ethics, safety codes and standards that relate to this specific design. 9.3 Contemporary Issues Some issues that can be present in the world for the Design would be: the budget a team has, the material that is available to them, and the tools or workshop that is available to them as well. The budget a team has is the biggest problem that usually occurs. If the budget wasn t a problem other problems would not exist. For having a big budget would get you everything you need to be able to manufacture the design even if it was not built in house. The team s budget is not the best around the world, so to compensate many parts are being built in house. Luckily enough, there is enough money to get some of the more difficult parts to make to be made by professionals that have the right equipment for the jobs. Even having one of the best budgets it may be harder in some areas around the world to get certain materials or technology to be able to create the exact design. Some regions in the world lack a lot of access to machinery and materials due to not being a first world country having a harder time in the manufacturing process. 9.4 Impact of Design in a Global and Societal Context The impact on the design portion of this project was affected minimally with global constraints due to already managing a lower budget. Since the budget is lower, the material selection and design is easier to acquire and maintain all around the world. The most common material that is used for the design is mostly aluminum with some stainless steel. Since these two metals are common and found around the world it makes the bill much lower and effort to find 81

92 them much less. The society that will have the most difficulty to replicate the design and material, would be ones that are very poor or having set laws that prohibit certain actions those citizens can take. 9.5 Professional and Ethical Responsibility The responsibilities, when it comes to the design, are most importantly to follow the standards that were previously stated above. Most of the professional standards and ethical responsibilities come from ASME. Some ethical responsibilities consisted of having an advisor that was reputable for the project. When it comes down to business, the professionalism inside of each team member appears and grows throughout the project. There are many deadlines that must be met considering not only the classes portion, but also the FSAE deadline that creep up very quick to qualify for this year s competition. 9.6 Life-Long Learning Experience Several long-life experiences are learned throughout the project process. The biggest experience that we will always continue to use throughout an engineer s career would be how to work with others in a team. This experience will continue to be used on how to deal and split workloads. Knowing the people, you are working with usually is big advantage, as it helps in knowing strengths and weaknesses of each partner. In which the team leader can then separate workloads, putting a part that is harder for another member to do versus a different member that is good in that specific area. Also, there are times that some people may not agree. This experience will also be around in every project in the industry as different cultures and beliefs mix together. Knowing how to deal, and get passed differences is an experience that engineers will all need to be able to have to become successful. Also, the team has learned that there is always a better way 82

93 to do something. To always be open minded to suggestions and run simulations to see results before putting down someone s idea. As for every part that has been made there have been hundreds of iterations and changes that were made. Without a doubt, if there was more time there would be another hundred more improving the design. As engineers this is what it is all about, improving designs and making life easier. Cost to benefit ratio is also a huge learning curve. As the budget is not that great, as previously mentioned, aluminum is the main material being selected other than carbon fiber. Even though carbon fiber is a little lighter than aluminum the cost of carbon fiber is much higher. 9.7 Discussion Throughout this section, the design experience that was gained and many things have been learned that will be carried in the life of a mechanical engineer s career. As many standards that have been used will also be used in other projects and companies. As personal professional standards, have been increased due to many deadlines, meetings, and communication amongst other engineers. As well as ethical standards, as engineers, the team must follow without fail throughout our careers. Sometimes global economies and problems are considered in designs to branch out products around the world to make more money. Many different experiences were learned and engraved in the team and will be carried on through a rigorous and demanding career. Using what has been learned will generate better results later on down the road. Saving money, time, and resources making each member of the team more proficient and efficient at what has to be done. 83

94 10. CONCLUSION 10.1 Conclusion and Discussion The suspension system that has been proposed and designed is composed of various components that have been optimized to achieve the specific requirements and targets the team had proposed. Through various iteration and changes to each specific component for the entire suspension system was made lighter compared to previous year s design. The team mostly concentrated in lowering weight while maintaining a safe design. Some of the factors of safety are a bit high because the team wanted to make sure the components would not fail. The rear integrated hub is a new component that was designed for the suspension which will have many added benefits. Some of the added benefits that the rear hub provides is lower weight and increase torque transfer. Some added benefits that are seen due to lighter uprights and hubs will greatly affect the performance of the suspension when cornering. There were various geometry considerations that were followed in order to increase the overall performance of the suspension. Ackerman geometry was taken into account to minimize the amount of tire slip and increase the turning performance. Ackerman geometry was used to choose the steering arm angle which would give the optimal turning needed for the competition. Steering axis inclination was also considered and added to the upright to also increase stability when cornering and turning response. While taking into account many design aspects, manufacturing and cost considerations were also taken into account. The team is limited in manufacturing capabilities due to the tools the team has available, and therefore the team has to outsource many of the required parts. Having a limited capability for manufacturing increases our cost and therefore the proposed design is designed in a way it is easy to manufacture and it is not too expensive. 84

95 10.2 Evaluation of Integrated Global Design Aspects Various global design aspects were added into the proposed design which took into account cost, manufacturability and ease of assembly. All the bolts that are used throughout the suspension are standardized and will be used consistently throughout the assembly. Another global design consideration that has been included in the design is the ease of manufacturing by choosing radii that could be made with standard tools so that it can be made relatively easy in various parts of the world. An assembly manual in various languages will be provided in order to describe the proper way to assemble the suspension system Evaluation on Intangible Experiences This project allowed the team to learn various interdisciplinary skills that greatly prepared each of the team members as a working professional. Teamwork skills were improved by having to constantly work together in order to guarantee that all the suspension components will properly assemble. Presentation skills have also been gained through this project due to the various required presentation that needed to be made in order to show progress through the project. Communication skills greatly improved, because clear communication was required in order to properly design all the components. Understanding global design aspects also helped all team members understand different possibilities and design considerations when designing each component Future Work The suspension system has many factors that can be improved. The entire system could be lighter if a different material were to be chosen like carbon fiber. Carbon fiber offers the strength the team is looking for but the cost is very high therefore the team has to have a higher budget in order to be able to choose those types of materials. Further weight savings could be achieved by 85

96 removing unnecessary material which increases manufacturing cost. The main future updates that could be updated to the suspension would be mostly due to material selection, which will create the biggest impact. 86

97 REFERENCES 1. SAE International, Committee, Formula Sae Rules. (n.d.): n. pag. FSAE RULES. FSAE, Aug.-Sept Web Race Car Vehicle Dynamics, Milliken, William F. and Milliken, Douglas L., pg.1-465, WITTEK, A., RICHTER, H., & ŁAZARZ, B. (2011). STABILIZER BARS: Part 2. CALCULATIONS - EXAMPLE. Transport Problems: An International Scientific Journal, 6(1), Zhang, B., Zhang, J., Yi, J., Zhang, N., & Jin, Q. (2016). Model and Dynamic Analysis of a Vehicle with Kinetic Dynamic Suspension System. Shock & Vibration, doi: /2016/ "Handbook of Vehicle-Road Interaction." Mechanical Engineering-CIME, May 2000, p. 83. Student Resources in Context, 6. Thilmany, Jean. "COMBINING RESULTS WITH SIMULATION." Mechanical Engineering-CIME, July 2000, p. 20. Student Resources in Context, 7. Zhang, Bangji, et al. "Modal And Dynamic Analysis Of A Vehicle With Kinetic Dynamic Suspension System." Shock & Vibration(2016): Academic Search Complete. Web. 8. MITROI, Marian, and Anghel CHIRU. "Neodymium Magnets Suspensions For Mechanical Systems Of The Vehicle." Acta Technica Corvininesis - Bulletin Of Engineering 9.4 (2016): Academic Search Complete. Web. 9. DEMIĆ, Miroslav D., and Djordje M. DILIGENSKI. "Numerical Simulation Of Shock Absorbers Heat Load For Semi-Active Vehicle Suspension System." Thermal Science 20.5 (2016): Academic Search Complete. Web. 10. ISA, Hazril Md., et al. "Using Magnetic Field Analysis To Evaluate The Suitability Of A Magnetic Suspension System For Lightweight Vehicles." Turkish Journal Of Electrical Engineering & Computer Sciences 24.5 (2016): Academic Search Complete. 11. Shen, Yujie, et al. "Modeling And Optimization Of Vehicle Suspension Employing A Nonlinear Fluid Inerter." Shock & Vibration(2016): 1-9. Academic Search Complete. 87

98 12. Bali, Prasad, and C. V. Chandrashekara. "Golden Section Search Based Optimization Of Road Vehicle Suspension System." International Journal Of Vehicle Structures & Systems (IJVSS) 7.1 (2015): Academic Search Complete. Web. 13. MING, CHEN, and LV JIAN-HUA. "Numerical Optimisation Of Vibration Acceleration Transmissibility For Seat Suspension System In Vehicles." Journal Of The Balkan Tribological Association 22.1A-I (2016): Academic Search Complete. Web. 14. Yan, Zhenhua, et al. "Modeling And Analysis Of Static And Dynamic Characteristics Of Nonlinear Seat Suspension For Off-Road Vehicles." Shock & Vibration (2015): Academic Search Complete. Web. 15. QUANMIN, GUO, et al. "Parallel Coordinating Control Strategy For Vehicle Magneto- Rheological Semi-Active Suspension." Journal Of The Balkan Tribological Association 22.3-I (2016): Academic Search Complete. Web. 16. Yang, Meng-Gang, and C. S. Cai. "Longitudinal Vibration Control For A Suspension Bridge Subjected To Vehicle Braking Forces And Earthquake Excitations Based On Magnetorheological Dampers." Journal Of Vibration & Control (2016): Academic Search Complete. Web. 17. Di, Tan, Lu Chao, and Zhang Xueyi. "Dual-Loop PID Control With PSO Algorithm For The Active Suspension Of The Electric Vehicle Driven By In-Wheel Motor." Journal Of Vibroengineering 18.6 (2016): Academic Search Complete. Web. 18. "How Car Suspensions Work." HowStuffWorks. N.p., 11 May Web. 25 Oct "Roll Center Understood." Roll Center Understood. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Oct "Steering Geometry." (n.d.): n. pag. Motor Industry, Sept Web. Sep%2009/TT%20_%20Sept%2009.pdf 21. Ackerman? Anti-Ackerman? Or Parallel Steering? Web. 88

99 APPENDIX A: ENGINEERING DRAWINGS All drawings are labeled accordingly to their respective part numbers from Table 8 in section 6.4. Figure 51: Part 1 89

100 Figure 52: Part 2 Figure 53: Part 3 90

101 Figure 54: Part 4 Figure 55: Part 5 91

102 Figure 56: Part 6 Figure 57: Part 7 92

103 Figure 58: Part 8 Figure 59: Part 9 93

104 Figure 60: Part 10 Figure 61: Part 11 94

105 Figure 62: Part 12 95

106 Figure 63: Part 13 Figure 64: Part 14 96

107 Figure 65: Part 16 Figure 66: Part 17 97

108 Figure 67: Part 19 Figure 68: Part 20 98

109 Figure 69: Part 21 Figure 70: Part 22 99

110 Figure 71: Part

111 APPENDIX B: MANUFACTURING PHOTO ALBUM Figure 72: Manufacturing the Chassis Jig 1 Figure 73: Manufacturing the Chassis Jig 2 101

112 Figure 74: Manufacturing the Chassis Jig 3 Figure 75: Manufacturing the Chassis Jig 4 102

113 Figure 76: Manufacturing the Control Arms Jig 1 Figure 77: Manufacturing the Control Arms Jig 2 103

114 Figure 78: Manufacturing the Control Arms Jig 3 104

115 Figure 79: Manufacturing the Control Arms 1 Figure 80: Manufacturing the Control Arms 2 105

116 Figure 81: Manufacturing the Bell Crank Spacers 1 Figure 82: Manufacturing the Bell Crank Spacers 2 106

117 Figure 83: Manufacturing the Bearing Staking Tool 1 Figure 84: Positioning the Suspension Mounting Tabs 1 107

118 Figure 85: Positioning the Suspension Mounting Tabs 2 108

119 Figure 86: Positioning the Suspension Mounting Tabs 3 109

120 Figure 87: Positioning the Suspension Mounting Tabs 4 Figure 88: Positioning the Bell Cranks 1 110

121 Figure 89: Positioning the Bell Cranks 2 Figure 90: Positioning the Bell Cranks 3 111

122 Figure 91: Positioning the Push Rods 1 Figure 92: Mounted Suspension 1 112

123 Figure 93: Mounted Suspension 2 113

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