Off Road Innovations. Design of an Off-Road Suspension and Steering System. EN Mechanical Design Project II - Progress Report 2

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1 Off Road Innovations Design of an Off-Road Suspension and Steering System EN Mechanical Design Project II - Progress Report 2 Andrew Snelgrove Calvin Holloway Jeremy Sheppard Kathleen Price

2 Acknowledgements Off-Road Innovations would like to thank the following individuals within the Engineering Department of Memorial University of Newfoundland whose time, assistance, and enthusiasm for our design project helped make this possible. Professor Andy Fisher Dr. Geoff Rideout Taufiqur Rahman M. Raju Hossain For your expertise and guidance throughout our project, thank you. 1

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4 Contents 1 Introduction The Baja Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Series The Memorial Baja Team Off-Road Innovations Project Management Plan Project Goals Project Constraints Member Responsibilities Project Schedule Team Communications Project Risks Suspension and Steering Design Redesign Scope Suspension and Steering Design Methodology Wheel Alignment Steering Geometry Design Targets Steering Enhancement Front Mounted Rack and Pinion System Minimizing Bump Steer Mud Protection SolidWorks Toe SimMechanics Mating Joints Shock Absorber Model Initial Results Moving Forward Budget References

5 List of Figures Figure 1: Wheelbase and Track (Wheelbase, 2013)... 7 Figure 2: Example of Positive and Negative Camber... 8 Figure 3: Example of Steering Axis and Scrub Radius (Front View)... 8 Figure 4: Toe-in and Toe-out (View from Top of Vehicle)... 9 Figure 5: Negative and Positive Caster Figure 6: Independent Front Suspension and Steering Geometry Figure 7: Determining Ideal Centre of Steering Ball Travel Figure 9: Static Ride Height and Static Camber (Front View) Figure 11: Range of Caster from Uncompressed (Left) to Compressed (Right) Shock Travel Figure 13: Spherical Joint Mate Figure 15: Progressive Damping Curve (Left) (Factory, 2009) and Curve Fit Data (Right) Figure 17: Shock Compression (m) with respect to Time (s) Figure 19: Loop 1 for Motion Analysis Figure 21: Loop 3 for Motion Analysis List of Tables Table 1: Design Targets Table 2: Estimated Cost of Parts to be Purchased Table 3: Cost to Mass Produce the Upper A-arm

6 1 Introduction The purpose of the term 8 Mechanical Design project is to provide students with an opportunity to pursue an open-ended design project from start to finish. Students are required to develop a strategy for solving a problem, plan and manage, evaluate system design variations and develop a complete design documentation package. (Fisher 14) For this design challenge, Off-Road Innovations was formed to redesign the Memorial Baja s front suspension and steering systems. 1.1 The Baja Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) Series The Baja SAE series is an international competition which test the limits of minimalistic racecars (Baja s), designed and built by engineering students from over 100 universities. The competitions are geared toward simulating real-world engineering design projects and the challenges faced within them. The Baja s compete in static and dynamic events. Static events include ranking the students based on their design and vehicle costs. Dynamic events incorporate acceleration, suspension and traction, maneuverability, hill climb, rock crawl, mud pits and a four hour endurance race designed to push the vehicle to its limits through rough terrains. All vehicles are required to use an identical ten-horsepower Intek Model 20 engine donated by Briggs & Stratton Corporation. Having all teams use the same engine creates a more challenging engineering design test. (Society of Automotive Engineers, 2014) 1.2 The Memorial Baja Team The Memorial Baja team is a group of engineering students from Memorial University that have been competing in the Baja SAE series since Over the past four years the Baja has developed and undergone many design changes with the key focus of maintaining a light, durable and competitive car. 1.3 Off-Road Innovations This design team of four Memorial University Engineering Students are each a part of the Memorial Baja competitive team. With past experience, passion for engineering and a commitment to the team, Off-Road Innovations is an unparalleled design group with the determination and capability to guarantee success. To improve on previous Memorial Baja car performance, Off-Road Innovations has taken on the challenge of redesigning the front suspension and steering systems. 3

7 2 Project Management Plan Off-Road Innovations has selected a free form design group structure where a lead defines global milestones and objectives and responsibilities are given at a task-by-task basis. With this structure each member has the opportunity to contribute equally to all aspects of the project design where revisions are made as needed. 2.1 Project Goals Off-road Innovations goal is to develop an enhanced front suspension and steering system for the Memorial Baja team. The improved system will: Provide more driver room Give a raised ride height Lower forces transmitted in frontal impacts through recessional travel Maintain previous reliability and low weight These goals have to be met while still maintaining the reliability and low weight of the 2013 Baja design. In order for this goal to be met successfully all members of the team will play an intricate role to see the project through. 2.2 Project Constraints Design Constraints: Improve on original design as described in section Error! Reference source not found. Suspension must mount to 4130 steel tubing with 1¼ diameter (SAE regulations) Project Constraints: Must be in line with previous Memorial Baja suspension costs. Project deliverables are to be completed on or before April 4, Member Responsibilities Each member of Off-Road Innovations is committed to the following standards: Contribute an average of 5+ hours per week Participate equally in the writing of all reports and presentations Engage with enthusiasm Offer feedback and criticism where necessary Play an active role by contributing at weekly review and design group meetings 4

8 2.4 Project Schedule A Gantt chart is used to facilitate easy viewing of the schedule and to ensure timely completion of all tasks. It provides understanding on how tasks are interrelated and helps to effectively allocate resources. The most recent Gantt chart can be seen in Appendix A. 2.5 Team Communications The team keeps an updated website ( giving an overview of the members, projects and team goals. The website provides access to meeting minutes and an updated Gantt chart. 2.6 Project Risks The two main risks that Off-Road Innovations is faced with include driver safety and failure to complete the project by the required date. To mitigate the risk to the driver s well-being, the development of the steering and suspension system will closely follow the standards set forth by the SAE competition governing body. To ensure the project is completed by the required time, the project management plan will be reviewed weekly and the updated Gantt chart will be used to track progress. 5

9 3 Suspension and Steering Design Off road vehicles pose an interesting design problem for engineers due to the long suspension travel and low wheel rates. Baja vehicles introduce a number of design difficulties merited by many parameter and behavioral interactions. In context, the amount of suspension travel for the Baja vehicle is over twice that of typical passenger cars. With such significant travel, strong consideration must be given to how the tire is moving relative to the ground during travel. The very small engine type causes any inefficiency that are present to greatly affect the performance of the vehicle. For information on the suspension and steering systems used in previous years by Memorial Baja refer to Appendix C. After reviewing and analyzing various suspensions and steering systems it was determined that the double a-am suspension and the rack and pinion steering systems remain the best suited designs for our application. For a more detailed review of each system and to view the selection matrices used see Appendix D. 3.1 Redesign Scope Using the collective information and field experience that the team has developed, a new suspension and steering system will be engineered with enhancements including more recessional travel and caster angle, greater driver ergonomics and other general performance enhancements. The redesign work will be focused on system geometry and placement as well as ensuring previous reliability and performance targets are met or exceeded. Due to time and financial limitations, some components will be outside the scope of the redesign work and include: Front wheels Hubs Knuckle assembly Shocks A-arm bushings of the suspension system Rack and pinion aluminum mount With these restrictions in place the components to be designed include: A-arm structural member types and material Upper and lower A-arm geometry Tie rod material and geometry Steering column Chassis mounting locations Rack and pinion geometry and locations Rack and pinion bushing material Rack and pinion bushing design 6

10 3.2 Suspension and Steering Design Methodology The first objective is to have all the tires turn around a centurial point. This is important because it prevents the tire from scuffing and creating premature tire wear. To get the proper geometry the Ackerman angle needs to be considered. Below is the formulas used to calculate the offset of the outside front tire and inside front tire: δ o = δ i = L R+ t 2 L R t 2 (1) (2) δo Ackerman angle outside tire δi Ackerman angle inside tire L wheelbase R turn radius t track width (Stone & Ball, 2004) Wheel Alignment Figure 1: Wheelbase and Track (Wheelbase, 2013) (Date Accessed: February 1 st, 2014) Wheel alignment is very important for the handling of the Baja. If you have the tire aligned properly the car should drive straight without any input from the driver. The components of wheel alignment include: Camber Steering axis inclination Toe Caster 7

11 Camber is the angle of the tire in the vertical direction. A car can have positive camber, this is when the top of the tire is farther away from the car. Alternatively a car can have negative camber, when the top of the wheel is closer to the car. Negative camber is normally used in offroad vehicle because it enhances tire engagement with the ground when maneuvering around turns. (Stone & Ball, 2004) Figure 2: Example of Positive and Negative Camber (Adapted from: (July Subaru of Keene Service Specials), Date Accessed: February 5 th, 2014) Steering axis is the vertical axis that is generated from the upper and lower joints. The steering axis to the center of the tire is called the scrub radius. This creates scrubbing forces when the driver is turning the wheel. Ideally this would be as small as possible so it creates less wear on the tires. The upper joint is normally closer to the car and the lower joint is farther away. Having the steering axis on an angle to reduce the scrub radius in turn makes it easier to steer the car and causes less wear on the tires. (Stone & Ball, 2004) Figure 3: Example of Steering Axis and Scrub Radius (Front View) (Stone & Ball, 2004) 8

12 Toe is the difference from the front of the tire to the back of the tire when looking from the top view. Toe in is when the front of the tire is closer to the vehicle and toe out is when the rear of the tire is closer to the car. Both toe in and toe out reduce the efficiency of the car by introducing scrubbing forces. (Stone & Ball, 2004) Figure 4: Toe-in and Toe-out (View from Top of Vehicle) (Stone & Ball, 2004) Caster is the angle of the steering axis viewed from the side. Positive caster is when the upper joint is farther to the rear of the car. Negative caster is when the steering axis is inclining towards the front of the car. Having positive caster is desirable because it provides a more stable ride and helps with aligning the wheels to drive in a straight line. When designing the caster of the system, the steering axis should intersect with the ground before the tire contact patch. (Stone & Ball, 2004) 9

13 Figure 5: Negative and Positive Caster (Adapted From: (July Subaru of Keene Service Specials)) (Date: Accessed: February 5 th, 2014) Steering Geometry One of the biggest challenges when designing a steering and suspension system is to get the wheel alignment to stay in place during the travel of the suspension. There is a relationship between the suspension linkages and the tie-rods. As seen in the figure below the intersection of the point IC and I C is the correct placement for the rack and tie-rod connection. Having the connection in this position will limit any bump steer. Bump steer is when the toe changes when the shocks are compressed. As discussed in previous section, if the car has too much toe in, this will reduce the efficiency of the car. (Stone & Ball, 2004) Figure 6: Independent Front Suspension and Steering Geometry (Stone & Ball, 2004) 10

14 3.3 Design Targets Using the overall results from the previous Memorial Baja car new design targets have been discussed and decided upon by the team. The targets set include: Table 1: Design Targets 11

15 4 Steering Enhancement 4.1 Front Mounted Rack and Pinion System To increase space while improving the current system, the steering knuckle was flipped so the tie rods and the rack and pinion gearbox are positioned in front of the centre of the hub. Moving the rack and pinion gearbox forward means that the steering column will no longer interfere with driver entry and exit of the vehicle. Steepening the angle of the steering column will also enable an acceptable angle to be created so that the universal joint that couples the column can be eliminated. At this time, the universal joint is still present in the SolidWorks model as the final position and mounting of the rack are in development. Removing the universal joint removes a potential mode of failure, reduces cost and weight, and increases overall system efficiency. 4.2 Minimizing Bump Steer To minimize bump steer, the connection between the rack and tie rod must lie in the ideal centre of steering ball travel (Stone & Ball, 2004). To determine this point, lines were drawn in SolidWorks through the upper and lower A-arms when the steering wheel was in a neutral position with an uncompressed shock (AI and BI) and when the wheel is moved to its maximum height when the shock is fully compressed (A I and B I ). Another line was drawn from the connection point between the steering knuckle and the tie rod, to the previous intersection points at I and I (CI and C I ). The intersection point between lines Cl and C l will be the ideal centre of steering ball travel, and so the length of the rack was modified to move the joint to this ideal point. This can be seen in Figure 7. l l Figure 7: Determining Ideal Centre of Steering Ball Travel 12

16 4.3 Mud Protection Mud located inside the rack-and-pinion gearbox reduces the efficiency of the steering system, and was a problem on the previous model of the car. As shown in Figure 8, by extending the bushings farther outside of the gearbox, mud-protective boots covering the rack can be tied more securely to the exposed lips, and would therefore reduce the potential for mud to seep into the gearbox. Figure 8: Extension of Brass Bushings at Rack and Pinion Gearbox 13

17 5 SolidWorks SolidWorks is a 3-Dimensional modeling software that allows a user to quickly conceptualize their design idea. The software allows the user to create annotations to show relevant measurement readings on the model. These annotations can update automatically, and are useful in determining how manipulating the model geometry can affect wheel alignment as well as other measurements of interest. The critical parameters or measurements of interest are five main design targets taken from Table 1 and are listed below: Static ride height Camber through the range of motion Caster through the range of motion Toe through the range of motion Recessional travel With the obstacles that will be encountered at a Baja SAE Competition, static ride height is very important to ensure minimal ground interference without sacrificing the Baja s stability. To change the ground height of our Baja in SolidWorks the mounting points of the shock on the lower a-arm is adjusted. Ground clearance was shown through an annotation that measured the distance between the bottom of the chassis and the bottom of the tire. The models current static ride height of 289.3mm making it within an 8mm tolerance of the 281mm design target. When the shock is fully compressed the Baja has a ground clearance of 63.2mm preventing the car from bottoming out. Through research and previous experience negative camber was determined to be desirable. To manipulate camber the multiple links and tab locations of the upper and lower A-arms were adjusted. The mounting location of the upper a-arm had a significant effect on the camber. Camber was shown on the model through an annotation that measures the angle of vertical line that was sketched on the wheel rim to the right plane, which runs through the centre of the car. In the current model the static camber is 4.27 which reasonably close to the 4 design target that was set earlier in project. The camber change through the range of motion is 4.45 which is under the design target of 6. Ground clearance and this camber range is shown in Figure 9, and Figure

18 Figure 9: Static Ride Height and Static Camber (Front View) Figure 10: Compressed Shock Ride Height Change and Camber Change (Front View) Caster is the alignment of the steering axis which helps with the self-aligning characteristic of steering and it changes camber while turning. Having negative caster enables the car to lean 15

19 into the turn. For the model the caster was manipulated by changing the mounting of the bottom A-arm to the chassis. To track this parameter there was a sketch created on the steering axis that was measured from the front plane. The steering axis is the two point where the A-arms connect to the steering knuckle. The design target for caster was set at negative six degrees. The SolidWorks model currently has 5.65 which does not change through the range of motion, see. Figure 11: Range of Caster from Uncompressed (Left) to Compressed (Right) Shock Travel The next parameter that was considered was the recessional travel of the wheel. This is when the wheel travels towards the back of the car through its range of motion. This helps to absorb frontal impact by transferring some of the force through shocks. In the model the recessional travel is measured from the spindle to the front plane. Currently the recessional travel is 29.5 mm while the design target is set for 51 mm. This is something that could change in the future. To increase recessional travel, the angle of the bottom chassis member that the lower A-arms are mounted is increased. 5.1 Toe The final parameter that was evaluated was the toe of the Baja. This is the angle of the tire when looking at the top of the car, see Figure 12. To display toe-in and toe-out a horizontal line was sketched on the rim of the wheel. This enabled us to measure the angle made between the line and the right plane which runs through centre of the car. The current model has 3 of toe in at the static ride height and 2.1 when the shock is compressed. Having one degree of travel through the range of motion is reasonable for a steering system that has such a steep incline in there tie rods. It was decided that having a little toe in was acceptable because the caster will create a moment around the center of the tire. This moment will straighten the wheels once the Baja get up to speed. 16

20 Figure 12: Range of Toe from Uncompressed (Left) to Compressed (Right) Shock 17

21 6 SimMechanics After the geometry of the front suspension and steering was established in SolidWorks, it was necessary to import the model into SimMechanics and Simulink in Matlab to perform a dynamic analysis. It is difficult to create the characteristic of the shock in SolidWorks, but SimMechanics, combined with Simulink, allows the user to perform these tasks. SimMechanics provides the multi-body simulation environment for 3D mechanical systems (Math Works, 2014), and Simulink allow the user to modify and view the parameters of the system, such as establishing force inputs, and determining reaction forces at joints. To import the SolidWorks model into SimMechanics/Simulink, a SimMechanics Link was created between Matlab and SolidWorks. The SolidWorks model was saved as an.xml file, and the.xml file was imported into SimMechanics Mating Joints The team experienced one initial problem importing the SolidWorks model into SimMechanics. When the SolidWorks model was first created, a coincident joint was generated between the inner surface of the cup, and the outer surface of the ball, for all of the ball and cup spherical joints in the model. SimMechanics did not recognize this mate and defaulted all spherical joints to welded joints. After consulting Mr. Rahman, it was later determined that a coincident mate between the centers of the ball and cup would create the required spherical joints in Simulink. Figure 13 depicts the blue spheres, at the centre of each part, to be mated. Figure 13: Spherical Joint Mate Shock Absorber Model As no mathematical model was available for the Fox Float X Evol shock absorbers, the team was able to derive one using empirical data that was available in the unit s manual. The data was 18

22 Force (N) provided in the form of progressive spring curves that showed the effect of varying the pressure in the main air chamber of the shock, and progressive damping curves that showed the effect of adjusting the High Speed adjuster. Using median data, a curve was plotted in excel and using the method of least squares for a third order polynomial an equation for each curve was found. Spring and damper empirical data and curve fits are shown below in Figure 14 and Figure Travel (m) Figure 14: Progressive Spring Curve (Left) (Factory, 2009) and Curve Fit Data (Right) The spring characteristic from this curve was found to be: F S = x x x 3 (3) Where spring force (Fs) is in Newtons and Travel (x) is in meters. The derivative of this equation provides the shock coefficient Ks as a function of travel in Newton s per meter: K S = x x 2 (4) 19

23 Force (N) Velocity (m/s) Figure 15: Progressive Damping Curve (Left) (Factory, 2009) and Curve Fit Data (Right) The damping characteristic from this curve was found to be: F D = x x x 3 (5) Where derivative of this equation produces the function of the damping coefficient BD : B D = x 235.2x 2 (6) Using the above mathematical models a Simulink model was created for the shock (Figure 16). The model first takes body coordinates from the lower and upper shock bodies and generates a length signal. The length signal is inputted directly into the spring channel and is differentiated to achieve a velocity signal for the damping model as shown. 20

24 6.1 Initial Results Figure 16: Shock Absorber Simulink Model Outputs of the model are quite promising with shock displacements (Figure 17) and forces () behaving as expected. Further development is required to better represent the boundary conditions of the shock as it reaches its maximum or minimum travel. To simplify the model for initial development very stiff springs were used to represent end stops and has caused the jolting forces as shown in the force plot (Figure 18). With the addition of a damper in parallel to the stiff spring to account for losses at these end stops the repeated jolting forces in the joints will be smoothed out and quickly dissipate. To achieve these initial results, a simple pulse force was applied vertically to the center of gravity of the steering knuckle for a short period of time, then released. 21

25 Figure 17: Shock Compression (m) with respect to Time (s) Figure 18: Reaction Force (N) experienced by Top A-Arm Spherical Joint over Time (s) 22

26 7 Moving Forward The team will continue to fine-tune the SimMechanics Model. This will include dampening the stiff boundary springs and applying varying force and position inputs to simulate obstacles encountered on the track. Motion Analysis will be used to validate the results. Vertical movement of the tire can be related to the compression of the shock with three loop vectors. This can be viewed in Figure 19, Figure 20, and Figure 21. Forces can be determined at any of the joints along the loop vectors. r y + r x + r 1 = r 2 + r 3 Known: r 1, r, 2 r 3 Unknown: θ 2, θ 3, r x Input: r y, r, y r y Figure 19: Loop 1 for Motion Analysis 23

27 r 2 + r 3 = r 4 + r 5 Known: r 2, r, 3 r, 4 r 5 Unknown: θ 5 Figure 20: Loop 2 for Motion Analysis r 5a + r 6 = r 4a Known: r 4a, r 5a Unknown: r 6, θ 6 Figure 21: Loop 3 for Motion Analysis 24

28 Finite Element Analysis will be used to assist in choosing material and hardware based on the stresses experienced in the joints and members. 25

29 8 Budget A preliminary budget of parts to be purchased can be seen in Table 2. Hardware is subject to change pending simulation results. A cost analysis will be completed for all parts that are being fabricated in the context of mass-production. Expenses relating to labor and material will follow guidelines as specified by the SAE. Cost to fabricate the upper a-arm can be seen in Table 3. This is based on the assumption that ¾ 1020 steel with a wall thickness of 1/16 will be used. Table 2: Estimated Cost of Parts to be Purchased Table 3: Cost to Mass Produce the Upper A-arm 26

30 9 References AGCO Automotive. (2014). AGCO. Retrieved January 20, 2014, from Bauer, H. (Ed.). (2000). Automotive Handbook. Robert Bosch GmbH. Ciulla, V. T. (2002). Power Steering. Retrieved February 6, 2014, from About.com: Crolla, D. A. (Ed.). (2009). Automotive Engineering: Powertrain, Chassis System and Vehicle Body. Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann (Elsevier Science & Technology Books, Inc./Elsevier Inc.). Fisher, A. (2014). ENGI 8926 Course Outline. Memorial University. How Stuff Works. (2014). How Car Steering Works. Retrieved January 20, 2014, from Inc, F. F. (2009). ATV Float X EVOL Owner's Manual. Watsonville, CA, United States: Fox Factory. Isaac-Lowry, J. (2004, August 22). Suspension Design: Types of Suspensions. Retrieved from Automotive Articles: July Subaru of Keene Service Specials. (n.d.). Retrieved February 5, 2014, from Subaru (subaruofkeene.com): Levine, M. (2010, May 31). Driving a Pickup with Electric Power Steering. Retrieved February 1, 2014, from PickupTrucks.com: Math Works. (2014). SimMechanics. Retrieved March 5, 2014, from Model and Simulate Multibody and Mechanical Systems: Society of Automotive Engineers. (2014). SAE Collegiate Design Series. Retrieved January 26, 2014, from SAE International: Stone, R., & Ball, J. K. (2004). Automotive Engineering Fundamentals. Warrendale: SAE International. Toboldt, W. K., Johnson, L., & Gauthier, W. S. (2000). Automotive Encyclopedia: Fundamental Principles, Operation, Construction, Service, and Repair. Tinley Park: The Goodheart-Willcox Company, Inc. Wheelbase. (2013, December 17). Retrieved February 1, 2014, from Wikipedia: 27

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32 Appendix A Project Gantt Chart i

33 Appendix B Detailed Memorial Baja Specifications Suspension Parameters Suspension Type Tire Size and Type Wheels (width, construction) Center of Gravity Design Height Vertical Wheel Travel (over the travel) Recessional Wheel travel (over the travel) Total track change (over the travel) Wheel rate (chassis to wheel center) Spring Rate Front Dual unequal length A-Arm, Fox Float X EVO air shocks. *24x6-10 MAXXIS R2 *6" wide, Forged Al, 4/2 offset 17"-18" ( 442mm) above ground 7" (178 mm) jounce/ 5.4" (137 mm) rebound 0" (0mm) 1.2" (30.5mm) 58 lbs/in (10 N/mm) initial; 288 lbs/in (50 N/mm) high impact (adjustable); (progressive airshock, 2 linear approximations) 200 lbs/in (35 N/mm) Initial; 800 lbs/in (140 N/mm) High Impact (adjustable); (progressive airshock, 2 linear approximations) Motion ratio / type 0.57 average actual progressive rate Roll rate (chassis to wheel center) 6.4 degrees per g Sprung mass natural frequency 1.2 Hz (Fully Adjustable) Type of Jounce Damping Low speed adjustable Type of Rebound Damping Low Speed adjustable Roll Camber (deg / deg) 0.86 deg / deg Static Toe 2 deg Toe change (over the travel) 1 deg Static camber and adjustment method 5 deg inward, adj. via outboard rod end on A-arm Camber Change (over the travel) 6 degrees Static Caster Angle 7 deg Caster Change (over the travel) 0 deg Kinematic Trail 1.7" Static Kingpin Inclination Angle 8 degrees non-adjustable Static Kingpin Offset 0.92" (23.4mm) Static Scrub Radius -1.7" (-43.2mm) Static Percent Ackermann 40% Percent Anti dive / Anti Squat 0% Anti dive Static Roll Center Position 6.3" (160mm) above ground Number of steering wheel turns lock to lock 2 Outside Turn Radius 11' ( 3.3m) to right ii

34 Appendix C Previous Generation Suspension and Steering Systems The front suspension design of the Memorial Baja car has been consistent over the past few years since it has never caused problems due to its simplistic and practical design. However, since the Memorial Baja team has made such radical improvements to each aspect of the car each year, the current system requires optimization in order for the team to be an even more aggressive competitor. Design The design of the 2013 Memorial Baja front suspension/steering systems is a fixed length double A-arm design with rack and pinion steering. The suspension system utilized the steering knuckle from a Polaris Outlaw 525 IRS and Fox Float Evolution shocks with 7 of travel. Front Suspension Arms The bottom A-arms are comprised of 1 OD x 1/16 wall AISI 4130 chromoly tubing. There are lower stresses in the top A-arm due to the shock mounting position so smaller tubing was selected, 3/4 x 1/16 AISI 1020 steel tubing. The 1 OD A-arm pivots feature Delrin bushings, a spacer made of high-grade pre-ground drill rod (AISI A2 tool steel), and M8x65 grade 8.8 bolts. To reduce friction and maintenance a M6 grease fitting is used to allow lubrication of the sliding interface between the Delrin bushings and the polished drill rod spacer. This is modeled in Figure A. The A-arms are mounted to the chassis with 1/8 44W grade steel plate (similar to A36), cut out with a water jet cutter. All tabs were made identical in order to simplify fabrication and mass production Figure A: Suspension Mounting and Bushing Internals Shock Absorbers and Steering Knuckles The current front suspension utilizes Fox Float X Evolution air shocks see Figure B. These shocks are lightweight and have adjustment capabilities. The shocks are inclined to give a wheel rate ranging from 58 lb/in up to 288 lb/in through its travel and mount to the bottom A-arms close to the steering knuckle. To mount the shocks, tabs were fabricated from 1/4 44W grade steel and cut out with a water jet cutter. The steering knuckle used from the Polaris Outlaw 525 IRS can be viewed in Figure C. i

35 Figure B: Fox Float X Evolution Air Shocks Figure C: Front Suspension set-up ii

36 Rack and Pinion System The rack and pinion steering system consists of two durable 19mm (3.4 ) 1020 steel tie rods with a wall thickness of mm (1/16 ). These tire rods link the steering rack output to the front knuckles via ball joint and clevis connectors. The steering column uses a double universal set up that bolts to the steering wheel and is coupled to the pinion shaft on the steering rack. The column is made of 25.4mm (1 ) diameter 1020 steel tubing with a wall thickness of mm (1/16 ). The rack has been designed with a lock to lock distance of 139.7mm (5.5 ) achieved by a gear rotation of 530 degrees. To counteract thrust on the input shaft brought on by driver movement over rough terrain, the input shaft is held in place with internally pressed bushings. A grease fitting is used to allow for lubrication. Suspension and Steering Modeling and Simulation The SolidWorks Simulation package has been used to identify stress concentrations and the factors of safety for each element, revised structural members and support have been selected based on results. Car specifications, drop test simulation results and frontal impact simulation results are depicted in tables A, B and C below. All results were achieved using the SolidWorks application package. Table A: Car Specifications Table B: Drop Test iii

37 Table C: Front Impact For more in depth information see Appendix B. iv

38 Appendix D Concept Generation and Selection Suspension and Steering To ensure that previous decisions regarding the suspension and steering system types were still preferable, a concept generation and selection phase of the project was carried out. After a number of systems were researched, weighted ranking was assigned to each to validate that the chosen system would best fit our needs. Suspension Concept Generation The initial concept generation process resulted in four different types of suspension configurations. The following are the most commonly used in off-road applications: Swing Arm Double A-arm (Double Wishbone) MacPherson Strut Trailing Link Swing Arm This independent suspension is positioned in the front of the vehicle and causes the axle to pivot about the center of the car. Each wheel can travel without affecting the other side. (Isaac- Lowry, 2004) The following table describes the advantages and disadvantages of the swing arm: Table D: Advantages and Disadvantages of a Swing Arm Suspension Advantages Disadvantages Manufacturability Robust Relatively durable Improves steering Heavy due to axle and pivot Does not handle big bumps Rough ride i

39 Double A-arm: Figure D: Swing Arm Suspension (Isaac-Lowry, 2004) (Date Accessed: Feb. 1 st, 2014) The Double A-arm consists of two triangulated arms that connect to the top and bottom of the wheel hubs. These A-arms are different lengths to create the appropriate negative camber. This design is normally used in the front suspension of off-road vehicles. The table below shows some advantages and disadvantages of this suspension type: Table E: Advantages and Disadvantages of a Double A-arm Suspension Advantages Disadvantages Easy to adjust camber Camber changes when turning Large range of deflection Expensive Versatile Very complex Camber should change when hitting a bump (Isaac-Lowry, 2004) ii

40 Figure E: Double A-arm on 2013 Memorial Baja MacPherson Strut In a Macpherson strut the shock is mounted directly to the wheel hub and acts as the top link of the suspension. This independent suspension is normally used in small compact vehicles that mounting an engine in the front of the car. The following table notes the advantages and disadvantages of this suspension type: Table F: Advantages and Disadvantages of a MacPherson Strut Suspension Advantages Low maintenance Compact Simplicity Improve ride quality Disadvantages Handling Cannot change the position vertically without changing camber Hard to increase the width of the tires (Isaac-Lowry, 2004) iii

41 Figure F: Example of a MacPherson Strut (Isaac-Lowry, 2004) (Date Accessed: Feb. 1 st, 2014)_ Trailing Arms In a Trailing Arms suspension, the links are ahead of the tire. This type of suspension is normally used in the rear of the car because it is hard to mount the links ahead of the tires in the front. Table G outlines some advantages and disadvantages of a trailing arms suspension: Table G: Advantages and Disadvantages of a Trailing Arms Suspension Advantages Disadvantages Low cost Normally used in rear suspension Small space requirements Does not allow lateral or camber Moves up and down with the change bumps in the road Very bulky supports Ride quality Links bend when under significant loading (Isaac-Lowry, 2004) iv

42 Suspension Concept Selection Figure G: Example of a Trailing Arms Suspension (Isaac-Lowry, 2004) (Date Accessed: Feb. 1 st, 2014) To select the best system, the relative importance of each criteria was weighted between themselves out of 100%. Priority was given first to weight, then cost and manufacturability, then performance and maintenance. Then, each criteria was judged on a scale of 1 (Poor) to 5 (Great). Then, these rating were weighted, and the results were totaled for each system type. The system that had the highest weighted totals would be the one that the team designed. Table H: Constraint Description and Weights for Suspension Selection Constraint Description Weight Cost Total Cost of Implementation 0.1 Durability Endure Competition 0.2 Weight Relative Weight of System 0.2 Manufacturability Ease of Manufacture 0.15 Performance Relative Performance 0.35 Maintenance Ease Perform Maintenance 0.1 v

43 Table I: Suspension Selection Matrix Criteria Swing Axle Score Weighted Score Double A-arms Score Weighted Score MacPherson Strut Score Weighted Score Trailing Link Score Weighted Score Cost (0.1) Durability (0.2) Weight (0.2) Manufacturability (0.15) Performance (0.35) Maintenance (0.1) Weighted Total After carrying out the selection process it was determined that the Double A-arm will be the concept selected. This is the concept that best meets the requirements. The Double A-arm scored well in the performance and weight constraints, which were the most important for the Baja application. Steering Concept Generation To ensure that the team chose a suitable steering system that met the requirements of the design project, four common steering systems were examined. These steering systems included: Manual rack and pinion Manual recirculating ball Hydraulic power-assisted Electric power-assisted Manual steering uses only the energy of the driver to turn the wheels (Bauer, 2000). Powerassisted steering is also known as power steering (Toboldt, Johnson, & Gauthier, 2000). Power steering has been developed to reduce the amount of effort the required by the driver to steer the vehicle (Stone & Ball, 2004). It uses two energy sources, the force of the driver turning the vi

44 steering wheel, and another source of energy, such as hydraulics or electricity. Both types of power-assisted steering were examined Manual Rack and Pinion The manually operated rack and pinion steering configuration is an inexpensive, simple, and relatively compact system. As one can observe from Figure H, when the steering wheel is turned, it rotates a pinion gear that meshes with the teeth embedded in a rack. This rack moves laterally, pushing and pulling tie rods, causing the tires to rotate about the kingpins. (Stone & Ball, 2004) Figure H: Manual Rack and Pinion on the Memorial Baja 2013 Car Table J: Advantages and Disadvantages of a Manual Rack and Pinion Advantages Disadvantages Inexpensive Simple Design Relatively compact Manufacturability Driver experiences feedback and feeling from steering system as they steer (Stone & Ball, 2004) Proven steering system in previous competitions with Memorial Baja Higher impact sensitivity System can experience greater stresses due to forces exhibited by tie rods Memorial Baja observed at the past competition that tie rods joints were backing off, causing toe in and therefor tire scrubbing vii

45 9.1.2 Manual Recirculating Ball Figure J - Cross-Section of a Recirculating Ball Gearbox Example (How Stuff Works, 2014) (Date Accessed: February 1 st, 2014) Figure K - Example of Complete Recirculating Ball Steering System with Pitman Arm (How Stuff Works, 2014) (Date Accessed: February 1 st, 2014) Another steering system configuration that was considered was the manual operation of the recirculating ball type. This configuration uses a combination of a nut and a worm gear. The nut moves up and down the worm gear as the worm gear turns from the steering column. Ball bearings inside the box recirculate around the worm gear, reducing wear on the gear. (Stone & Ball, 2004) viii

46 As the nut moves up and down the worm gear, it causes the pitman arm to rotate left or right about a fixed axis, therefore pushing and pulling the track and tie rods to turn the wheels appropriately. (How Stuff Works, 2014) Table K: Advantages and Disadvantages of a Recirculating Ball System Advantages Disadvantages Steering effort by driver is reduced. More complicated than rack and pinion. More expensive than rack and pinion. No feedback or steering feeling experienced by driver. (Stone & Ball, 2004) Hydraulic and Electric Power-Assisted Steering Hydraulic and electric energy are examples of alternative sources of energy that can assist a driver in turning their front wheels. Hydraulic power-assisted steering uses fluid from a reservoir and a pump to assist in pushing the tire wheels (AGCO Automotive, 2014). Alternatively, in electric power-assisted steering, an electric motor can assist in turning the wheels (Levine, 2010). As shown below in Figures L and M, they can be used in combinations similar to a rack and pinion setup. Figurer L: Example of a Hydraulic Power-Assisted Steering Configuration (AGCO Automotive, 2014) ix

47 Figure M: Example of an Electric Power-Assisted Steering Configuration (Levine, 2010) Table K: Advantages and Disadvantages of Power Assisted Steering Advantages Disadvantages Less effort by driver to turn steering wheel Both types are more complicated Expensive Noise and leaking from hydraulic systems Requires maintenance Difficult to repair Increase weight Steering Concept Selection As with the front suspension concept selection, the four types of steering underwent a design matrix selection to determine which steering system was suitable for the requirements of the team. The selection criteria included financial cost to construct, the weight of the system, the ease of fabrication, steering performance, and ease of maintenance should the steering system break during competition. TableL Constraint Description and Weight Constraint Description Weight Cost Total Cost of Implementation 0.2 Weight Relative Weight of System 0.3 x

48 Manufacturability Ease of Manufacture 0.2 Performance Relative Performance 0.15 Maintenance Ease of Maintenance 0.15 Table M Steering Selection Matrix Constraint Score Rack and Pinion Weighted Score Recirculating Ball Score Weighted Score Hydraulic Power-Assisted Score Weighted Score Electric Power-Assisted Score Weighted Score Cost (0.1) Weight (0.2) Manufacture (0.2) Performance (0.35) Maintenance (0.1) Weighted Total The final selection was the manual rack and pinion steering, with a weighted total of The remaining options, ordered from descending scores, include the manual recirculating ball steering (3.55), electric power-assisted steering (2.725), and hydraulic power-assisted steering (1.625). xi

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