The Discussion of this exercise covers the following points:
|
|
- Joseph Maxwell
- 6 years ago
- Views:
Transcription
1 Exercise 1 Battery Fundamentals EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will be familiar with various types of lead-acid batteries and their features. DISCUSSION OUTLINE The Discussion of this exercise covers the following points: Description Battery types Cell versus battery Operation during discharge and charge cycles Open-circuit voltage State-of-charge Voltage regulation and internal resistance Battery capacity Depth of discharge Cycle life DISCUSSION Description A battery is a device that converts chemical energy into electric energy by means of an electrochemical reaction. When a load such as a resistor or a small light bulb is connected to the terminals of a battery, a chemical reaction starts and electricity is produced and consumed by the load. The chemical reaction continues until the chemical energy of the active materials inside the battery is exhausted. When no load is connected to the battery terminals, no chemical reaction occurs and no electrical energy is produced. Battery types There are three major types of batteries: primary (single use), secondary (rechargeable), and reserve (for long storage periods). Primary batteries are discarded when discharged. They are commonly used as a power source for portable electronic and electrical devices, lighting, and a host of other applications. Secondary batteries can be electrically recharged. They can be used as an energy-storage device, which is usually electrically connected to and charged by an energy source that delivers energy to a load on demand, as in automotive applications, emergency systems, and stationary energy storage systems. They can also be used essentially as primary batteries, but can be recharged after use instead of discarded. Lead-acid batteries are secondary batteries. Festo Didactic
2 Exercise 1 Battery Fundamentals Discussion Reserve batteries are designed for long term storage. Their active materials are physically isolated when not in use. In this condition, chemical deterioration or self-discharge is eliminated. When activated, they can deliver high power for relatively short periods, in missiles, torpedoes, and other weapon systems for example. Cell versus battery Schematic symbol of a battery The basic electrochemical unit that produces electric energy is referred to as a cell. A battery consists of a series/parallel arrangement of several cells. For example, the 12 V lead-acid battery used in any internal-combustion engine (ICE) car for starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI battery) consists of six cells connected in series, each cell having a nominal output voltage (voltage under load) of about 2 V. See Figure 2. Figure 2. A 12 V lead-acid battery contains six cells. Operation during discharge and charge cycles Each battery cell consists of two electrodes submerged in an electrolyte. The positive electrode is called the cathode and the negative electrode is called the anode. In lead-acid batteries, the cathode is made of lead dioxide (PbO 2 ), while the anode is made of metallic lead (Pb). The electrolyte is sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ). Figure 3 shows the status of the active materials in a lead-acid battery cell when it is fully charged. Cathode PbO 2 Anode Pb Electrolyte H 2SO 4 - Sulfuric acid 35% - Water 65% Figure 3. Status of the active materials in a fully-charged lead-acid battery cell. 4 Festo Didactic
3 Exercise 1 Battery Fundamentals Discussion Scientists of the 17 th century arbitrarily decided that current flows from the positive terminal to the negative terminal. This so-called conventional current direction is still used today, and is the accepted direction of current flow, but it is worth noting that the actual direction of electron flow is opposite to the conventional current direction. When a load is connected to the battery terminals, a chemical reaction takes place in which the lead (Pb) of the anode and the lead dioxide (PbO 2 ) of the cathode combines with the sulfate (SO 4 ) of the sulfuric acid to produce lead sulfate (PbSO 4 ). During this process, both electrodes are thus gradually converted to lead sulfate. The chemical reaction between the anode and the electrolyte forces electrons out of the electrolyte at the anode. These electrons flow through the load to reach the cathode, where the electrons are accepted. The electric circuit is completed in the electrolyte by the flow of anions (negative ions) and cations (positive ions) to the anode and cathode, respectively. See Figure 4. Conventional current direction Load Flow of electrons PbO 2 decreases PbSO 4 increases Flow of anions Flow of cations Electrolyte - Sulfuric acid proportion decreases - Water proportion increases Pb decreases PbSO 4 increases Figure 4. Status of the active materials in a lead-acid battery cell during the discharge cycle. During the discharge cycle, the acid proportion in the electrolyte decreases, and the positive and negative electrodes become more like one another. Once the electrodes are similar, the voltage between them becomes null and the current stops flowing. At this point, both electrodes are converted into lead sulfate and the sulfuric acid is primarily converted into water as shown in Figure 5. PbO 2 and PbSO 4 Pb and PbSO 4 Electrolyte - Sulfuric acid 15% - Water 85% Figure 5. Status of the active materials in a discharged lead-acid battery cell. During the charge cycle, a dc power source is connected to the battery terminals as shown in Figure 6. Notice that the positive terminal of the dc power source is connected to the positive terminal of the battery to reverse the direction of current flow and the chemical reaction. During this process, the lead sulfate (PbSO 4 ) is dissolved, the electrodes and the electrolyte return to their original charged state. Festo Didactic
4 Exercise 1 Battery Fundamentals Discussion DC power source PbO 2 increases PbSO 4 decreases Pb increases PbSO 4 decreases Electrolyte - Sulfuric acid proportion increases - Water proportion decreases Figure 6. Status of the active materials in a lead-acid battery during the charge cycle. Open-circuit voltage The nominal open-circuit voltage (also known as theoretical voltage) corresponds to the voltage measured at the battery terminals without load when the battery is fully charged (the battery is neither charging nor discharging); it is the maximum voltage a battery can produce. The value of the nominal opencircuit voltage depends on the chemical reaction, which is determined by the type of active material, the composition of the electrolyte, and the temperature. The nominal open-circuit voltage per cell for the most popular secondary batteries is shown in Table 1. From the values in Table 1, we notice that the maximum voltage a 6-cell lead-acid SLI battery can produce is 12.6 V. Table 1. Nominal open-circuit voltage of various cell types. Cell type Nominal open-circuit voltage (V) Lead-acid (Pb) 2.10 Nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) 1.24 Nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH) 1.20 Lithium-ion (Li-ion) State-of-charge When a lead-acid battery is not fully charged, its open-circuit voltage is less than the nominal value. As Figure 7 shows, the value of the open-circuit voltage varies linearly with the state-of-charge (residual capacity) of the battery. It can therefore be used to approximate the state-of-charge of a battery. 6 Festo Didactic
5 Exercise 1 Battery Fundamentals Discussion Open-circuit voltage (V) State-of-charge (%) Figure 7. Typical open-circuit voltage versus state-of-charge of a 12-V lead-acid battery. A more precise method of measuring the state-of-charge of a battery is to measure the specific gravity () of the electrolyte using a hydrometer. The specific gravity refers to the weight of a solution (electrolyte), with water having a reference rating of g/cm 3. Table 2 shows the specific gravity of an SLI leadacid battery electrolyte at different states-of-charge. Table 2. State-of-charge versus specific gravity of the electrolyte (SLI battery). State-of-charge (%) Specific gravity 100 (fully charged) (discharged) Voltage regulation and internal resistance The voltage measured at the terminals of a battery to which a load is connected (working voltage), is always lower than the open-circuit voltage. The difference is due to the internal resistance of the battery. An ideal battery has negligible internal resistance, so it can maintain a constant voltage no matter what the load current value is. See Figure 8. Festo Didactic
6 Exercise 1 Battery Fundamentals Discussion Voltage (V) Ideal battery Actual battery Current (A) Figure 8. Voltage regulation curve. In Figure 9a, the battery is represented by an ideal voltage source (12 V) to which a load is connected. Now suppose a real battery has an internal resistance of 0.2 as shown in Figure 9b. The internal resistance adds to the load resistance. For instance, when a load having a 1 resistance is connected to the battery, the result is a circuit current of 10 A (12 V 1.2 ) and a load voltage of 10 V (10 A 1 ) instead of 12 V. This is illustrated in Figure 8. = 12 A = 10 A = 0.2 = 12 V = 1 = 12 V = 1 = 10 V = 12 V (a) (b) Figure 9. Equivalent circuit of a battery. 8 Festo Didactic
7 Exercise 1 Battery Fundamentals Discussion Notice that the voltage drop caused by the internal resistance increases with the load current, as is shown in Figure 8. Because the internal resistance of leadacid-batteries is rather low, the voltage variation that occurs when the load current varies is also low. For this reason they are said to have a fairly good voltage regulation. Battery capacity The capacity () of a battery is a measure of the amount of energy that can be delivered by a battery when it is fully charged. The capacity of a battery is determined by the type of active material used (which determines the voltage), the amount of active material (the amount of electrolyte), and the surface area of the plates that constitute the electrodes. So the larger the battery dimensions and the heavier the battery weight, the higher the capacity. One ampere-hour (Ah) corresponds to the electric charge transferred by a steady current of one ampere for one hour. Note that the symbol A h is also widely used to represent the ampere-hour. The capacity of a lead-acid battery is usually determined by measuring the average load current during a discharge test that lasts a specific time and brings the battery voltage down to a preset end value at which the battery is considered to be completely discharged. This final voltage is commonly referred to as the cutoff voltage because it is the voltage at which battery discharge must be stopped to avoid damage to the battery (e.g., subsequent plate sulfation when battery is left discharged). The capacity rating is expressed in amperehours (Ah). For instance, a lead-acid battery rated for 200 Ah will deliver 10 A of current for 20 hours under standard temperature conditions or 50 A for 4 hours, and so forth. Figure 10 shows the discharge curves of a 200 Ah lead-acid battery at the above currents. Notice that an ideal battery is assumed here. Terminal voltage (V) 50 A 10 A Minutes Hours Duration of discharge Figure 10. Discharge curves of an ideal 200 Ah lead-acid battery. When the capacity is determined using a test that lasts 20 hours, it is referred to as the capacity. Similarly, when the capacity is determined using a 10 h test, it is referred to as the capacity. For example, if the average current value during a 20 h discharge test is 2 A, then the battery capacity is 40 Ah. The capacity of lead-acid batteries is commonly defined using a 20 h discharge test (capacity ), and sometimes using a 10 h discharge test (capacity ). Festo Didactic
8 Exercise 1 Battery Fundamentals Discussion It is common practice to express the load current as a discharge rate related to the battery capacity (usually the capacity in the case of lead-acid batteries). For instance, if the battery capacity is 20 Ah, a discharge rate of will correspond to a 4.0 A load current. Depth of discharge As its name indicates, the depth of discharge (D.O.D.) is a measure of how deeply a battery is discharged. It corresponds to the amount of energy that has been removed from the battery, and is usually expressed as a percentage of the total capacity of the battery. For example, an 80% depth of discharge means that 80% of the energy has been removed, so the battery now holds only 20% of its full charge. The depth of discharge affects the number of charge-discharge cycles in a battery life. The deeper the batteries are discharged on average, the shorter the battery life. Cycle life The number of charge-discharge cycles a lead-acid battery can perform before its capacity drops to a given percentage (typically 80%) of its initial specified capacity is the cycle life. Many factors affect the cycle life of a battery: ambient operating temperature, type of storage, and discharge rate, but generally speaking, the two most important factors are the depth of discharge and the charging conditions. Figure 11 shows a typical cycle life versus depth of discharge characteristic of a lead-acid battery. This figure clearly shows that the cycle life decreases when the depth of discharge is increased. Percentage of capacity available 100% D.O.D. 50% D.O.D. 30% D.O.D. Number of charge-discharge cycles Figure 11. Cycle life versus depth of discharge characteristic. For cyclic applications where the batteries are regularly discharged and recharged, such as forklifts, golf carts, electric bikes, and electric cars, the batteries are specially designed to withstand frequent deep discharging. On the other hand, SLI batteries designed for starting automotive engines are not designed for deep discharges, and consequently, are quickly ruined by repeated discharges. 10 Festo Didactic
9 Exercise 1 Battery Fundamentals Procedure Outline PROCEDURE OUTLINE The Procedure is divided into the following sections: Setup and connections Battery state-of-charge (residual capacity) evaluation Battery voltage regulation curve Battery internal resistance evaluation Battery voltage and energy supplied during a discharge at PROCEDURE Setup and connections In this part of this exercise, you will set up and connect the equipment. 1. Refer to the Equipment Utilization Chart in Appendix A to obtain the list of equipment required to perform this exercise. Install the equipment required in the Workstation. 2. Set the main power switch of the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply to the O (off) position, then connect its Power Input to an ac power outlet. Set the Operating Mode switch of the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply to Power Supply. Connect the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply to a USB port of the host computer. Turn the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply by setting the main power switch to I (on). 3. Turn the host computer on, then start the LVDAC-EMS software. In the LVDAC-EMS Start-Up window, make sure the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply is detected. Select the network voltage and frequency that correspond to the voltage and frequency of the local ac power network, then click the OK button to close the LVDAC-EMS Start-Up window. Battery state-of-charge (residual capacity) evaluation In this part of the exercise, you will evaluate the state-of-charge of each battery in the Lead-Acid Batteries module by measuring the open-circuit voltage. This evaluation is necessary to ensure that the batteries are fully charged at the moment when you begin to perform the next steps. Festo Didactic
10 Exercise 1 Battery Fundamentals Procedure 4. Using a multimeter, measure the open-circuit voltage across each battery of the Lead-Acid Batteries module. Left battery voltage: V Right battery voltage: V 5. Determine the state-of-charge of each battery (expressed in percentage) using the open-circuit voltages measured in the previous step and the stateof-charge versus open-circuit voltage curve shown in Figure Open-circuit voltage (V) State-of-charge (%) Figure 12. State-of-charge versus open-circuit voltage of the batteries in the Lead-Acid Batteries module. State-of-charge of the left battery: % State-of-charge of the right battery: % a The open-circuit voltage can sometimes slightly exceed 13.0 V at 100% stateof-charge. If the open-circuit voltage of either one of the batteries is lower than 12.9 V, ask your instructor for assistance as the corresponding battery is probably not fully-charged. 12 Festo Didactic
11 Exercise 1 Battery Fundamentals Procedure Battery voltage regulation curve In this part of the exercise, you will measure the battery voltage at various load currents to plot the voltage regulation curve of the battery. 6. Record the nominal voltage and the rated capacity of the batteries indicated on the front panel of the Lead-Acid Batteries module. a The capacity indicated on the front panel of the Lead-Acid Batteries module has been rated using a 20-hour test (capacity ). Nominal voltage: Capacity ( ): Ah V 7. Using the battery capacity 20 that you have recorded in the previous step, calculate the load current corresponding to the following discharge rates:,,,,,, and. Record your results in the Load current row of Table 3. Table 3. Battery voltage versus load current. Discharge rate Load current (A) Battery voltage (V) 8. In LVDAC-EMS, open the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window and make the following settings: Set the Function parameter to Current Source (-).This setting makes the internal power source operate as a negative current source. When the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply operates as a negative current source, the current enters (sinking) through the yellow terminal and exits through the white terminal (neutral terminal N). Set the Current parameter to 0 A. This sets the current of the negative current source to 0 A. 9. Connect the left battery in the Lead-Acid Batteries module to the Four- Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply as shown in Figure 13. Festo Didactic
12 Exercise 1 Battery Fundamentals Procedure Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply * * 12 V Lead-acid battery N (*) Meter in the Negative Current Source window of LVDAC-EMS Figure 13. Battery connected to the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply operating as a negative current source. 10. For each load current indicated in Table 3 perform the following steps: In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, set the current to the required load current value then start the negative current source. Wait 30 s for the battery voltage to stabilize. Record the battery voltage (indicated on the display of the Four- Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply) in the Battery voltage row of Table 3. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, stop the negative current source. 14 Festo Didactic
13 Exercise 1 Battery Fundamentals Procedure 11. Using the values in Table 3, plot the battery voltage versus load current curve (voltage regulation curve) in Figure Battery voltage (V) Load current (A) Figure 14. Battery voltage versus load current (voltage regulation curve). 12. Does the battery voltage versus load current curve in Figure 14 confirm that the voltage variation that occurs when the load current varies is rather low? Yes No 13. Does this confirm that lead-acid batteries have good voltage regulation? Yes No Battery internal resistance evaluation In this part of the exercise, you will calculate the internal resistance of the battery by using the battery voltage and load current measured during discharge at rates of 20 and. 14. Calculate the internal resistance of the battery using the voltage and load current measured at and indicated in Table 3, and the following suggested equation: (voltage at voltage at ) / (load current at load current at. Battery internal resistance: Festo Didactic
14 Exercise 1 Battery Fundamentals Procedure Battery voltage and energy supplied during a discharge at In this part of the exercise, you will measure the voltage and energy supplied by a battery during a discharge cycle at. 15. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, make the following settings: Set the Function parameter to Battery Discharger (Constant-Current Timed Discharge with Voltage Cutoff). When tthis function is selected, the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply operates as a negative current source whose operation is controlled by parameters associated with battery discharge: discharge current, discharge duration, and cutoff voltage. The positive terminal of the battery to be discharged connects to the yellow terminal and the negative terminal of the battery connects to the white terminal (neutral terminal N). Set the Discharge Current parameter to 1.15 A ( 20 ). This sets the discharge current of the Battery Discharger to 1.15 A. Set the Discharge Duration parameter to 90 min. This sets the discharge duration to 90 min. a Set the Cutoff Voltage parameter to 9.8 V. This sets the cutoff voltage to 9.8 V. The setting of the cutoff voltage corresponds to the nominal cutoff voltage of the batteries in the Lead-Acid Batteries module for a discharge rate at (battery cutoff voltage is explained in more detail in the next exercise). 16. Replace the battery connected to the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply with the right battery (fully charged) of the Lead-Acid Batteries module. 17. In LVDAC-EMS, open the Data Table window. In the Timer Settings window of the Options menu, set the timer to make 180 records with an interval of 30 seconds between each record. This setting corresponds to a 90-minute period of observation. In the Record Settings window of the Options menu, select Voltage, Energy, Current, and Time Data as parameters to record. 18. In the Four-Quadrant Dynamometer/Power Supply window, start the Battery Discharger, then immediately start the timer in the Data Table window. Once the period of observation is completed, save your data. 16 Festo Didactic
15 Exercise 1 Battery Fundamentals Procedure 19. Export the recorded data to a spreadsheet application, and plot the battery voltage versus time curve at a discharge rate of. Note that the recorded data will be used in the next exercise. 20. From the battery voltage versus time curve, determine the duration of the discharge cycle at a rate of. Duration of a discharge cycle at a rate of : minutes 21. What caused the discharge cycle to end? 22. Describe how the voltage varies during the discharge cycle. 23. Describe how the battery voltage varies during the first fifteen minutes after the end of the discharge cycle. 24. Record the open-circuit voltage at the end of the period of observation. Open-circuit voltage at the end of the period of observation: V 25. Determine the state-of-charge of the battery (expressed in percentage) corresponding to the open-circuit voltage at the end of the period of observation. State-of-charge of the battery at the end of the period of observation: % 26. Does this correspond to a fully-discharged battery? Yes No 27. Close LVDAC-EMS, then turn off all equipment. Remove all leads and cables. Festo Didactic
16 Exercise 1 Battery Fundamentals Conclusion CONCLUSION In this exercise, you were introduced to lead-acid batteries. You saw that there are three major types of batteries: primary, secondary, and reserve. You learned that batteries consist of a series/parallel arrangement of several cells. You learned that electricity is produced by a chemical reaction between a positive electrode (cathode) and a negative electrode (anode) submerged in an electrolyte which is sulfuric acid. You saw that the battery open-circuit voltage can be used to approximate the state-of-charge of a lead-acid battery. You learned that lead-acid batteries have a good voltage regulation because they have a rather low internal resistance. You also learned that the battery capacity is a measure of the amount of energy that can be delivered by a battery when it is fully charged. REVIEW QUESTIONS 1. What happens when a load is connected to a lead-acid battery? Briefly explain why. 2. Give a brief description of the three major types of battery. 3. What is the effect of reducing the depth of discharge on the cycle life of a lead-acid battery? 4. Explain why the voltage measured at the terminals of a battery to which a load is connected is always lower than the open-circuit voltage. 5. Explain how the capacity of a lead-acid battery is usually determined. 18 Festo Didactic
Exercise 2. Discharge Characteristics EXERCISE OBJECTIVE DISCUSSION OUTLINE DISCUSSION. Cutoff voltage versus discharge rate
Exercise 2 Discharge Characteristics EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will be familiar with the discharge characteristics of lead-acid batteries. DISCUSSION OUTLINE The Discussion
More informationBattery Capacity Versus Discharge Rate
Exercise 2 Battery Capacity Versus Discharge Rate EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will be familiar with the effects of the discharge rate and battery temperature on the capacity
More informationExercise 3. Battery Charging Fundamentals EXERCISE OBJECTIVE DISCUSSION OUTLINE DISCUSSION. Charging fundamentals
Exercise 3 Battery Charging Fundamentals EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will be familiar with the effects of charge input, charge rate, and ambient temperature on the voltage
More informationExercise 2-1. The Separately-Excited DC Motor N S EXERCISE OBJECTIVE DISCUSSION OUTLINE DISCUSSION. Simplified equivalent circuit of a dc motor
Exercise 2-1 The Separately-Excited DC Motor EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to demonstrate the main operating characteristics of a separately-excited dc motor
More informationArmature Reaction and Saturation Effect
Exercise 3-1 Armature Reaction and Saturation Effect EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to demonstrate some of the effects of armature reaction and saturation in
More informationElectricity and New Energy. Lead-Acid Batteries
Electricity and New Energy Lead-Acid Batteries 86351-0 Order no.: 86351-10 Revision level: 12/2014 By the staff of Festo Didactic Festo Didactic Ltée/Ltd, Quebec, Canada 2010 Internet: www.festo-didactic.com
More informationExercise 7. Thyristor Three-Phase Rectifier/Inverter EXERCISE OBJECTIVE DISCUSSION OUTLINE DISCUSSION. Thyristor three-phase rectifier/inverter
Exercise 7 Thyristor Three-Phase Rectifier/Inverter EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will know what a thyristor threephase rectifier/limiter (thyristor three-phase bridge)
More informationPermanent Magnet DC Motor Operating as a Generator
Exercise 2 Permanent Magnet DC Motor Operating as a Generator EXERCIE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will be familiar with the construction of permanent magnet dc motors as well as
More informationPermanent Magnet DC Motor
Renewable Energy Permanent Magnet DC Motor Courseware Sample 86357-F0 A RENEWABLE ENERGY PERMANENT MAGNET DC MOTOR Courseware Sample by the staff of Lab-Volt Ltd. Copyright 2011 Lab-Volt Ltd. All rights
More informationExercise 6. Three-Phase AC Power Control EXERCISE OBJECTIVE DISCUSSION OUTLINE DISCUSSION. Introduction to three-phase ac power control
Exercise 6 Three-Phase AC Power Control EXERCISE OBJECTIVE When you have completed this exercise, you will know how to perform ac power control in three-phase ac circuits, using thyristors. You will know
More informationPrinciples of Doubly-Fed Induction Generators (DFIG)
Renewable Energy Principles of Doubly-Fed Induction Generators (DFIG) Courseware Sample 86376-F0 A RENEWABLE ENERGY PRINCIPLES OF DOUBLY-FED INDUCTION GENERATORS (DFIG) Courseware Sample by the staff
More informationBatteries Specifications. Estimating when they will be fully discharged
Batteries Specifications Estimating when they will be fully discharged Batteries Batteries are electrochemical cells. A chemical reaction inside the battery produces a voltage between two terminals. Connecting
More informationChapter 6. Batteries. Types and Characteristics Functions and Features Specifications and Ratings Jim Dunlop Solar
Chapter 6 Batteries Types and Characteristics Functions and Features Specifications and Ratings 2012 Jim Dunlop Solar Overview Describing why batteries are used in PV systems. Identifying the basic components
More information12-Batteries and Inverters. ECEGR 452 Renewable Energy Systems
12-Batteries and Inverters ECEGR 452 Renewable Energy Systems Overview Batteries Lead-Acid Batteries Battery Specifications Battery Charge Controllers Inverters Dr. Louie 2 Batteries Incorporation of a
More informationCELLS AND BATTERIES Understand the general features of cells and batteries Describe the relationship between cells and batteries. Describe the basic
Cell & Batteries CELLS AND BATTERIES Understand the general features of cells and batteries Describe the relationship between cells and batteries. Describe the basic operation of a battery. Compare between
More informationBattery. Student booklet
Battery Student booklet Battery - INDEX - 2006-04-07-12:51 Battery Batteries are all over the place, in our cars, our PCs, laptops, portable MP3 players and cell phones. A battery is essentially a can
More informationEnergy Storage. Electrochemical Cells & Batteries
Energy Storage These notes cover the different methods that can be employed to store energy in various forms. These notes cover the storage of Electrical Energy, Kinetic Energy, and Pneumatic Energy. There
More information1-3 RAMP AND TORQUE BOOST EXERCISE OBJECTIVE
1-3 RAMP AND TORQUE BOOST EXERCISE OBJECTIVE Understand the acceleration and deceleration time settings. Introduce the linear and S-shape acceleration and deceleration patterns. Introduce the Torque boost
More informationLead-Acid Batteries: Characteristics ECEN 2060
Lead-Acid Batteries: Characteristics ECEN 2060 Battery voltage at zero current v V batt + Pb PbO 2 H + H + H + H+ SO 4-2 H 2 O E o /q e = 0.356 V SO 4-2 I batt E o /q e = 1.685 V The chemical reactions
More informationUnderstanding the Battery
Understanding the Battery Materials Needed For this lesson, you will need the following materials: Student Manual Dummy Battery Visuals Understanding a Battery training video Battery Application Guide
More informationPermanent Magnet DC Motor
Electricity and New Energy Permanent Magnet DC Motor Student Manual 86357-00 Order no.: 86357-00 Revision level: 12/2014 By the staff of Festo Didactic Festo Didactic Ltée/Ltd, Quebec, Canada 2011 Internet:
More informationThere are several technological options to fulfill the storage requirements. We cannot use capacitors because of their very poor energy density.
ET3034TUx - 7.5.1 - Batteries 1 - Introduction Welcome back. In this block I shall discuss a vital component of not only PV systems but also renewable energy systems in general. As we discussed in the
More informationIntroduction to Solar Electric Battery Systems. J-Tech Solar Training
Introduction to Solar Electric Battery Systems J-Tech Solar Training Instructor Biography Jim Parish Jim has been involved in the Solar Industry for over 15 years. He designed and installed the first Photovoltaic
More informationWhy Ni-Cd batteries are superior to VRLA batteries. Statements and facts
Why Ni-Cd batteries are superior to VRLA batteries Statements and facts 1. Maintenance Maintenance for VLRA batteries leads to higher costs than for nickelcadmium batteries. 2. Lifetime In practice, the
More informationOpen-circuit voltages (OCV) of various type cells:
Open-circuit voltages (OCV) of various type cells: Re-Chargeable cells: Lead Acid: 2.10V/cell to 1.95 NiMH and NiCd: 1.20 V/cell Li Ion: 3.60 V/cell Non-re-chargeable (primary) cells: Alkaline: 1.50 V/cell
More informationFigure 1: Graphs Showing the Energy and Power Consumed by Two Systems on an ROV during a Mission
Power Systems 3 Cornerstone Electronics Technology and Robotics III Notes primarily from Underwater Robotics Science Design and Fabrication, an excellent book for the design, fabrication, and operation
More informationBatteries for HTM. Basic Battery Parameters:
Batteries for HTM Key Points Batteries: - chemistry; know the characteristic cell voltages of common chemistries: NiCd/ NiMH 1.2V Hg 1.35V Zn Alkaline 1.5V Ag Oxide 1.55V Pb 2.0V Li 3.0V LiIon/ LiPo 3.6V
More informationThe purpose of this lab is to explore the timing and termination of a phase for the cross street approach of an isolated intersection.
1 The purpose of this lab is to explore the timing and termination of a phase for the cross street approach of an isolated intersection. Two learning objectives for this lab. We will proceed over the remainder
More informationFamiliarize yourself with the pressure loss phenomenon. The Discussion of this exercise covers the following point:
Exercise 3-2 Pressure Loss EXERCISE OBJECTIVE Familiarize yourself with the pressure loss phenomenon. DISCUSSION OUTLINE The Discussion of this exercise covers the following point: Pressure loss Major
More informationNorthStar Battery Company DCN: SES DCR: 1548-S09 Date:
Application Manual and Product Information for NorthStar Battery Company Table of Contents Introduction...3 NSB Blue Series Benefits...4 ISO Certifications...5 NSB Blue Product Specifications...6 Leak
More informationChapter 2. Voltage and Current. Copyright 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Pearson [imprint]
Chapter 2 Voltage and Current OBJECTIVES Become aware of the basic atomic structure of conductors such as copper and aluminum and understand why they are used so extensively in the field. Understand how
More informationPerformance Characteristics
Performance Characteristics 5.1 Voltage The nominal voltage of Li/M no 2 cells is 3. volts, twice that of conventional cells due to the high electrode potential of elemental lithium. Consequently a single
More informationBatteries for HTM. D. J. McMahon rev cewood
Batteries for HTM D. J. McMahon 141004 rev cewood 2017-10-09 Key Points Batteries: - chemistry; know the characteristic cell voltages of common chemistries: NiCd/ NiMH 1.2V Hg 1.35V Zn Alkaline 1.5V Ag
More informationINTRODUCTION. Specifications. Operating voltage range:
INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION Thank you for purchasing the EcoPower Electron 65 AC Charger. This product is a fast charger with a high performance microprocessor and specialized operating software. Please
More informationA Brief Look at Batteries
A Brief Look at Batteries At some point during 501/502 you will need to use one or more batteries in order to provide power to a system that needs to be deployed away from line power. It s a good idea
More informationBATTERIES, CHARGERS & ALTERNATORS. Excerpt from G4 InverCharge Series Manual BY: VIJAY SHARMA ENGINEER
BATTERIES, CHARGERS & ALTERNATORS Excerpt from G4 InverCharge Series Manual BY: VIJAY SHARMA ENGINEER The G4 Series will require Deep Cycle Lead Acid Batteries of appropriate capacity. Lead-acid batteries
More informationAir Washington Electronics Direct Current
11 Batteries This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/. Air Washington is an equal
More informationTechnical Workshop: Electrical December 3, 2016
Technical Workshop: Electrical December 3, 2016 ELECTRICAL: CIRCUITS Key terms we will be using today: Voltage (V): The difference in electrical potential at one point in a circuit in relation to another.
More informationTesting Lead-acid fire panel batteries
Thames House, 29 Thames Street Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, KT1 1PH Phone: +44 (0) 8549 5855 Website: www.fia.uk.com Testing Lead-acid fire panel batteries 1. Background - Methods of testing batteries
More informationExercise 5-1. Primary Resistor Starters EXERCISE OBJECTIVE DISCUSSION. Understand how primary resistor starters operate.
Exercise 5-1 Primary Resistor Starters EXERCISE OBJECTIVE Understand how primary resistor starters operate. DISCUSSION High starting torque can result in sudden acceleration and damage to the driven machinery.
More informationIT 0335 US ARMY INTELLIGENCE CENTER INTRODUCTION TO CELLS AND BATTERIES
SUBCOURSE IT 0335 EDITION B US ARMY INTELLIGENCE CENTER INTRODUCTION TO CELLS AND BATTERIES INTRODUCTION TO CELLS AND BATTERIES Subcourse Number IT0335 EDITION B US ARMY INTELLIGENCE CENTER FORT HUACHUCA,
More information12 VDC Power Sources For Your RV
12 VDC Power Sources For Your RV Win Semmler RVIS, LLC www.rvinspectionservices.com www.facebook.com/rvinspectionservices rvisllc@gmail.com Sources of 12 VDC For Your RV Batteries Converters Alternators
More informationIT 0335 US ARMY INTELLIGENCE CENTER INTRODUCTION TO CELLS AND BATTERIES
SUBCOURSE IT 0335 EDITION B US ARMY INTELLIGENCE CENTER INTRODUCTION TO CELLS AND BATTERIES INTRODUCTION TO CELLS AND BATTERIES Subcourse Number IT0335 EDITION B US ARMY INTELLIGENCE CENTER FORT HUACHUCA,
More informationDismantling the Myths of the Ionic Charge Profiles
Introduction Dismantling the Myths of the Ionic Charge Profiles By: Nasser Kutkut, PhD, DBA Advanced Charging Technologies Inc. Lead acid batteries were first invented more than 150 years ago, and since
More informationFigure1: Cell, battery and connection definitions
BATTERIES As many small-scale methods of electricity generation are available only intermittently, some form of electricity storage or battery is needed if people want to have electricity available at
More informationA Study of Triangle Current Charge Method in Ni-MH Battery
IOSR Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IOSR-JEEE) e-issn: 2278-1676,p-ISSN: 2320-3331, Volume 13, Issue 1 Ver. I (Jan. Feb. 2018), PP 37-41 www.iosrjournals.org A Study of Triangle Current
More informationBatteries and Charge Control in Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems
Batteries and Charge Control in Stand-Alone Photovoltaic Systems Fundamentals and Application Author James P. Dunlop Publication Number FSEC-CR-1292-01 Copyright Copyright Florida Solar Energy Center/University
More informationLithium Coin Handbook and Application Manual
: Lithium coin cells were originally developed in the 1970 s as a 3 volt miniature power source for low drain and battery backup applications. Their high energy density and long shelf life made them well
More informationChapter 3. Direct Current Power. MElec-Ch3-1
Chapter 3 Direct Current Power MElec-Ch3-1 Overview Batteries Safety Precautions Marine Storage Battery Charging Systems Battery Utilization MElec-Ch3-2 Batteries Cells and Battery Battery Chemistry Primary
More informationPower to keep you on the move
Power to keep you on the move Electric Vehicle Gel ELECTRIC VEHICLE applications are wide and varied with many durability & power demands placed firmly on the batteries shoulders. HAZE ELECTRIC VEHICLE
More informationExercise 1-1. Lockout/Tagout Procedure EXERCISE OBJECTIVE DISCUSSION. Become familiar with the Industrial Controls Training System.
Exercise 1-1 Lockout/Tagout Procedure EXERCISE OBJECTIVE Become familiar with the Industrial Controls Training System. Understand and perform proper lockout/tagout procedures during industrial servicing
More informationEnergy Storage (Battery) Systems
Energy Storage (Battery) Systems Overview of performance metrics Introduction to Li Ion battery cell technology Electrochemistry Fabrication Battery cell electrical circuit model Battery systems: construction
More informationImpact of Pulse Voltage as Desulfator to Improve Automotive Lead Acid Battery Capacity
Impact of Pulse Voltage as Desulfator to Improve Automotive Lead Acid Battery Capacity EL MEHDI LAADISSI ANAS EL FILALI MALIKA ZAZI Abstract This paper studies the impact of Pulse Voltage as Desulfator
More informationVented fibre structure Nickel Cadmium batteries for stationary systems
Vented fibre structure Nickel Cadmium batteries for stationary systems FNC FNC Vented Nickel Cadmium Batteries the best solution for long, reliable battery life FNC Nickel Cadmium single cells are designed
More informationRedox Potentials and the Lead Acid Cell Minneapolis Community and Tech. College v I. Introduction. Part I
Redox Potentials and the Lead Acid Cell Minneapolis Community and Tech. College v.11.12 I. Introduction Part I In these experiments you will first determine the reduction potentials of a series of five
More informationIdeal substitute for lead-acid batteries. Safe and absolutely environmentally friendly technology offers alternative to common lithium-ion batteries.
Ideal substitute for lead-acid batteries. Safe and absolutely environmentally friendly technology offers alternative to common lithium-ion batteries. Operating in wide temperature range from -5 C to 50
More informationMODEL UC 14YFA. Hitachi. Power Tools TECHNICAL DATA AND SERVICE MANUAL CHARGER UC 14YFA SPECIFICATIONS AND PARTS ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE FOR IMPROVEMENT
MODEL UC 14YFA Hitachi Power Tools CHARGER UC 14YFA TECHNICAL DATA AND SERVICE MANUAL U LIST No. F888 Aug. 2003 SPECIFICATIONS AND PARTS ARE SUBJECT TO CHANGE FOR IMPROVEMENT CONTENTS Page 1. PRODUCT NAME...1
More informationEE Chapter 2 Aircraft Storage Batteries
EE 2145230 Chapter 2 Aircraft Storage Batteries Two types of batteries used on nearly all aircraft are nickel cadmium and lead acid batteries. All batteries produce dc voltage. 2.1 Dry Cells and Batteries
More informationDuracell Battery Glossary
Duracell Battery Glossary 1 Duracell Battery Glossary AB Absorption Alloy Ambient Humidity Ambient Temperature Ampere-Hour Capacity Anode Battery or Pack Bobbin C-Rate (also see Hourly Rate) Capacity Capacity
More informationHaze Battery Company Ltd
Haze Battery Company Ltd Sealed Lead Acid 6 & 12 Volt Monobloc Gelled Electrolyte Range CONSTRUCTION - Gel battery construction is as shown in the diagram. The positive and negative grids are cast from
More informationJEE4980 Sr Design Project. Residential Concept
JEE4980 Sr Design Project Photovoltaic System (PV) Module through Main Service Panel Project Implementation Discussion Wilcox Chapter 2 Lab Time continued project design work Refer to your electronic handout
More informationBatteries: Stored Energy Discussion Questions:
Batteries: Stored Energy Discussion Questions: 1) How is energy stored in a battery? 2) How many different types of batteries are there? 3) What kinds of tools and machinery can run on batteries? 4) Can
More informationGLOSSARY: TECHNICAL BATTERY TERMS
GLOSSARY: TECHNICAL BATTERY TERMS AB5 Absorption Alloy Ambient Humidity Ambient Temperature Ampere-Hour Capacity Anode Battery or Pack Bobbin C-Rate (also see Hourly Rate) Capacity Capacity Retention (or
More informationRequirements for battery discharge indicators for lead acid traction batteries
ZVEI information leaflet No. 13e Edition December 2011 Requirements for battery discharge indicators for lead acid traction batteries In order to achieve a high economic efficiency The economic efficiency
More informationeneloop: a helpful guide book for customer usage Please make use of eneloop keeping in a safe place.
eneloop: a helpful guide book for customer usage Please make use of eneloop keeping in a safe place. The number of dry batteries sold in one year in worldwide is *1 about 40 billion. eneloop represents
More informationSwitch Mode, Automatic, Lead Acid Battery Charger Model: SEC A SEC A SEC A
Switch Mode, Automatic, Lead Acid Battery Charger Model: SEC - 1260A SEC - 1280A SEC - 2440A Owner's Manual Please read this manual before operating your charger CONTENTS Important safety precautions...2
More informationLIFE CYCLE COSTING FOR BATTERIES IN STANDBY APPLICATIONS
LIFE CYCLE COSTING FOR BATTERIES IN STANDBY APPLICATIONS Anthony GREEN Saft Advanced and Industrial Battery Group 93230 Romainville, France e-mail: anthony.green@saft.alcatel.fr Abstract - The economics
More informationRELIABILITY Power Systems Ni-Cd Batteries Div. DS Ver.3.11/ Jan 2011 Page 1/20
RELIABILITY Power Systems Ni-Cd Batteries Div. DS Ver.3.11/ Jan 2011 Page 1/20 RELIABILITY NICKEL CADMIUM BATTERIES Owing to the structural materials they use, RELIABILITY Nickel Cadmium (Ni-Cd) Batteries
More informationPV System Components. EE 495/695 Spring 2011
PV System Components EE 495/695 Spring 2011 Main Components of Grid-Connected PV systems Battery storage is added to some grid-tied PV systems. Example of a grid-tied PV systems Main Components of Stand-Alone
More informationDeep Cycle Battery Safety. First. Battery Handling, Maintenance & Test Procedures
Deep Cycle Battery Safety. First. Battery Handling, Maintenance & Test Procedures Crown deep cycle batteries employ a low-maintenance design. They do require periodic maintenance and effective charging
More informationUnderstand how soft starters operate.
Exercise 5-2 Soft Starters EXERCISE OBJECTIVE Understand how soft starters operate. DISCUSSION Soft starters are solid-state devices providing gradual voltage increase, for the purpose of starting a motor
More informationCharging and Discharging Method of Lead Acid Batteries Based on Internal Voltage Control
Charging and Discharging Method of Lead Acid Batteries Based on Internal Voltage Control Song Jie Hou 1, Yoichiro Onishi 2, Shigeyuki Minami 3, Hajimu Ikeda 4, Michio Sugawara 5, and Akiya Kozawa 6 1 Graduate
More informationChapter 1: Battery management: State of charge
Chapter 1: Battery management: State of charge Since the mobility need of the people, portable energy is one of the most important development fields nowadays. There are many types of portable energy device
More informationeneloop: a helpful guide book for customer usage Please make use of eneloop keeping in a safe place.
eneloop: a helpful guide book for customer usage Please make use of eneloop keeping in a safe place. The number of dry batteries sold in one year in Japan is about 2.1 *1 billion. eneloop represents a
More informationThe introduction of Lead Crystal Battery
The introduction of Lead Crystal Battery (1). Brief Introduction of Lead Crystal Battery Lead crystal battery is based on an in-depth study of both lead acid batteries and gel batteries features and defects,
More informationHaze Battery Company Ltd. Sealed Lead Acid 6 & 12 Volt. Gelled Electrolyte Range. Monobloc
Haze Company Ltd Sealed Lead Acid 6 & 12 Volt Monobloc Gelled Electrolyte Range CONSTRUCTION - Gel battery construction is as shown in the diagram. The positive and negative grids are cast from a calcium/tin
More informationEnergizer Cylindrical Alkaline Application Manual
Page 1 of 11 Energizer Cylindrical Alkaline Application Manual Energizer Cylindrical Alkaline (Zn/MnO 2 ) Batteries System Description In answer to a growing need for a high rate source of portable power,
More informationProgramming of different charge methods with the BaSyTec Battery Test System
Programming of different charge methods with the BaSyTec Battery Test System Important Note: You have to use the basytec software version 4.0.6.0 or later in the ethernet operation mode if you use the
More informationBatteries. Eric Harris, Colin Hepton, Steven Hodgson, Martin Holland, Michael Hudson and Jonathan Ridyard. 14/11/2005
Batteries Eric Harris, Colin Hepton, Steven Hodgson, Martin Holland, Michael Hudson and Jonathan Ridyard. 14/11/2005 A Brief History Alessandro Volta. Voltaic Pile. 1800s. Silver and Zinc Plates separated
More informationGenset Starting Education Module #3: Solutions to Leading Causes of Battery Failure in Gensets
Genset Starting Education Module #3: Solutions to Leading Causes of Battery Failure in Gensets William F Kaewert SENS Stored Energy Systems LLC Revised October 2013 The leading causes of battery failure
More informationThe Discussion of this exercise covers the following points:
Exercise 3-3 Venturi Tubes EXERCISE OBJECTIVE In this exercise, you will study the relationship between the flow rate and the pressure drop produced by a venturi tube. You will describe the behavior of
More informationOptimal Control Strategy Design for Extending. Electric Vehicles (PHEVs)
Optimal Control Strategy Design for Extending All-Electric Driving Capability of Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) Sheldon S. Williamson P. D. Ziogas Power Electronics Laboratory Department of Electrical
More informationTraction batteries Hawker XFC Fast charge battery system. Plug & Play power solution
Traction batteries Hawker XFC Fast charge battery system Plug & Play power solution Adapting power to today s market needs. EnerSys launched their range of 12 volt Hawker XFC TM bloc batteries into the
More informationTRANSPORT OF DANGEROUS GOODS
Recommendations on the TRANSPORT OF DANGEROUS GOODS Manual of Tests and Criteria Fifth revised edition Amendment 1 UNITED NATIONS SECTION 38 38.3 Amend to read as follows: "38.3 Lithium metal and lithium
More informationHaze Battery Company Ltd
Haze Battery Company Ltd Sealed Lead Acid 2 Volt Bloc Gelled Electrolyte Range CONSTRUCTION - Gel battery construction is as shown in the diagram. The positive and negative grids are cast from a calcium/tin
More informationLead-Acid Batteries Training System
8010-45 Lead-Acid Batteries Training System LabVolt Series Datasheet Festo Didactic en 220 V - 50 Hz 03/2018 Table of Contents General Description 2 Courseware 3 Modular Design Approach 4 Features & Benefits
More informationThe Discussion of this exercise covers the following points:
Exercise 2 Float Switch EXERCISE OBJECTIVE Learn the working principle of float switches and how to use the float switch, Model 46935. DISCUSSION OUTLINE The Discussion of this exercise covers the following
More informationBatteries generally classifies into two main groups: primary and secondary battery types. Primary batteries are
Battery types Batteries generally classifies into two main groups: primary and secondary battery types. Primary batteries are disposable batteries that cannot be recycled, and the secondary is the rechargeable
More informationIs there really anything wrong with it? Generation II 2007 Toyota Prius 311,000 miles
Is there really anything wrong with it? Generation II 2007 Toyota Prius 311,000 miles Always make sure that the HV Disconnect is removed! Always use the proper protective equipment! 1,000 volt gloves Battery
More informationFamiliarization with voltage and current measurements. 1. Disconnect your training system from the wall outlet.
Job Sheet 6 Geothermal Heat Pumps OBJECTIVE In this job sheet, you will determine the coefficient of performance (COP) and the energy efficiency ratio (EER) using measured temperature, humidity, voltage,
More informationAnalytical thermal model for characterizing a Li-ion battery cell
Analytical thermal model for characterizing a Li-ion battery cell Landi Daniele, Cicconi Paolo, Michele Germani Department of Mechanics, Polytechnic University of Marche Ancona (Italy) www.dipmec.univpm.it/disegno
More informationUse of Aqueous Double Layer Ultracapacitor using Hybrid CDI-ED Technology for the use in Hybrid Battery Systems
Use of Aqueous Double Layer Ultracapacitor using Hybrid CDI-ED Technology for the use in Hybrid Battery Systems Overview By Robert Atlas, Aqua EWP,LLC. September 2007 Aqua EWP. has for the last 10 years
More informationElectric cars: Technology
Alternating current (AC) Type of electric current which periodically switches its direction of flow. Ampere (A) It is the SI unit of electric current, which is equivalent to flow of 1 Coulumb electric
More informationI. Equivalent Circuit Models Lecture 3: Electrochemical Energy Storage
I. Equivalent Circuit Models Lecture 3: Electrochemical Energy Storage MIT Student In this lecture, we will learn some examples of electrochemical energy storage. A general idea of electrochemical energy
More informationModule 9: Energy Storage Lecture 32: Mathematical Modeling for Lead acid battery
Module 9: Energy Storage Lecture 32: Mathematical Modeling for Lead acid battery In this lecture the mathematical modeling for energy storage devices are presented. The following topics are covered in
More informationMarine Recreational Vehicle Batteries Made Simple
Marine Recreational Vehicle Batteries Made Simple Introduction Batteries for marine use, whether engine start or house batteries, can make the difference between happy and contented cruising or an exercise
More informationATASA 5 th. Batteries. Please Read The Summary. ATASA 5 TH Study Guide Chapter 17 Pages Battery Theory & Service 70 Points
ATASA 5 TH Study Guide Chapter 17 Pages 501 535 Battery Theory & Service 70 Points ATASA 5 th Please Read The Summary 1. Electrical energy in a battery is produced by the that occurs between two dissimilar
More informationTechnical Note. Management of Sealed Lead Acid Batteries in Reliable Small DC Standby Power Supply Systems
Technical Note Management of Sealed Lead Acid Batteries in Reliable Small DC Standby Power Supply Systems Automation Products Introduction As more and more remote monitoring is installed on sites ranging
More informationELiTE Battery Information
ELiTE Battery Information History of Li- Ion Batteries What is a Lithium-ion Battery? Two or more electrochemical cells, electrically interconnected. Each cell contains two electrodes and an electrolyte.
More informationSTANDARDIZATION ORGANIZATION FOR G.C.C (GSO) GSO 34/2007
STANDARDIZATION ORGANIZATION FOR G.C.C (GSO) GSO 34/2007 LEAD-ACID STARTER BATTERIES USED FOR MOTOR VEHICLES AND INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES ICS: 43.040.00 LEAD-ACID STARTER BATTERIES USED FOR MOTOR VEHICLES
More information