PEMP ACD2501. M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru

Transcription

1 Historical Perspective Session delivered by: Dr. H. K. Narahari 01 1

2 At the end of this session the students would have understood: d History of flight Crucial developments Main components 01 2

3 Aviation Through the Ages 1000 B. C. to 1250 A. D. Man's observations of the earth around him aroused his curiosity and often inspired him to attempt the impossible. How did man's lack of knowledge of the physical laws of nature sometimes bring him tragedy? The Greek myth of Daedalus and his son Icarus was written around 1000 B.C. The myth states that after Daedalus built the labyrinth the king of Crete threw him in it to test it. He and his son Icarus escaped by building wings of wax and flying away. However Icarus flew too high and the wax in his wings began to melt. His wings collapsed and he plunged to his death in the sea. Kites flown around the year 400 B.C. in China were ancestors of modern aviation and the airplane. In the year 1020 A.D. Oliver of Malmesbury put on a pair of wings and leapt from the top of an abbey. He landed very hard and broke his legs. Luckily he survived the crash. Many others attempted to fly with "wings" but all failed, sometimes fatally. 01 3

4 Aviation Through the Ages 1250 to 1750 Leonardo was one of the first to experiment with the science of flying. Unfortunately his writings and sketches weren't discovered until three hundred years after death. Leonardo spent most of his life exploring flight and left the world about 160 documents of sketches and observations about flight. He made important discoveries about the center of gravity, the center of pressure, and streamlining. But like so many people of his time he was obsessed with ihlearning to fly likeabird. What is the difference between simply gliding and really flying like a bird? 01 4

5 Aviation Through the Ages 1750 to 1850 Smoke rising in a fireplace sparked Montgolfier's curiosity. Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier designed d the first successful flying craft. Their observations led them to believe that burning created a gas, which they called "Montgolfier's gas," causing a craft to rise. They constructed a balloon made of cloth and paper. The first aviators were a duck, rooster, and a sheep. Then in 1783 a crowd in Paris watched as a Montgolfier bll balloon carried idtwo French men. The way the balloons worked is hot air and gases filled the balloon causing it to lift. Once it was in the air it simply went wherever the wind took it. To counter this problem Henri Giffard designed d a round oval shaped balloon called a blimp and combined it with a steam engine to make it steerable. When gasoline engines were invented they became a major source of transportationt ti across the Atlanticti Ocean. The Hindenburg Zeppelin disaster in 1937 caused the end for these large airships. 01 5

6 Aviation Through the Ages 1850 to 1900 Sir George Cayley yset in motion the future study of aerodynamics in a single sentence. "The whole problem is confined within these limits, namely to make a surface support a given weight by the application of power to the resistance of air. Basically separate Lift and Thrust generation Sir George Cayley experimented with gliders at his home in Yorkshire. He was the first to discover how wings work, that they are lifted by air. He also constructed the first aircraft that was heavier than air. He is now recognized as the father of aviation. He came up with many principles of heavier-than-air flight. 01 6

7 Aviation Through the Ages 1850 to 1900 In 1896, the German engineer, Otto Lilienthal, tested several monoplane and biplane gliders. He built and flew the first glider capable of carrying a person, but died when he crashed in a sudden gust of wind before he could finish his powered plane. The structure of an airplane as we know it today was in its formative years. 01 7

8 Aviation Through the Ages 1900 to 1935 "Only those who are acquainted with practical aeronautics can appreciate the difficulties of attempting the first til trials of a flying machine in a25-mile gale... but... we were determined... to know whether the machine possessed sufficient power to fly." That was Wilbur Wright's statement to The Associated Press, January 5, At 10:35 a.m. on December 17, 1903 the world's first successful airplane known as the Flyer I accelerated along its launching rail and flew through the air. Twelve seconds later it landed 100 yards away on the soft sand at Kill Devil Hills near Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. The pilot Orville and his brother Wilbur had experimented for four years with kites and engines to make the first successful flight ever. The brothers had made their own engine that weighed 200 pounds and had four cylinders. It could make 12 horse power, a sixth of the engine power of a small car. It had no seat and the pilot had to lay in a cradle in the bottom wing. 01 8

9 Aviation Through the Ages 1900 to 1935 The Wright brothers continued to perfect their plane and it was in a Wright biplane that the first transcontinental flight was made by Calbraith P. Rodgers, in The key to their success was to learn how to control the plane. How were they able to accomplish this task? In 1914 World War I broke out, at first planes were used mostly for reconnaissance After development of biplane and triplane they were used as fighters and bombers. Experiments were done with even more sets of wings, but most failed. The main fighters of the war were the British Sopwith "Camel," its cousin, "The Snipe," and the famous German Fokker Df.I which was flown by the infamous Red Baron. Aerial tactics and strategies were developed during the middle of the war. Germany developed many fighter tactics that are still in modified use today. The compass was an important instrument to these early fighters. 01 9

10 Aviation Through the Ages 1900 to 1935 After the war General Billy Mitchell became an advocate for military aviation. He and his pilots achieved many firsts in the field of aviation during these golden years. Europeans were leading the race in commercial flight. It wasn't until Ralph Pulitzer offered a trophy to promote high-speed flight and began a national craze for air races that the American public began to take notice. In 1918, the Post Office Department started airmail service in the United States. The first Mailwing was built by Pitcairn Aviation, Inc. In 1926, Congress passed the Air Commerce Act. This established an Aeronautics Branch within the Department of Commerce. They were authorized to license planes and pilots and provide standards for commercial flight. And in 1927, Charles Lindbergh completed the first transatlantic flight. He instantly became a world hero. Amelia Earhart was the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic in

11 Aviation Through the Ages 1935 to 1950 New technologies developed throughout the course of World War II. The motto was if you commanded the skies you could win the war. World War II implemented almost exclusively monoplanes. Both sides of the war manufactured literallythousandsofll fighters and bombers. b The main Allied planes included the British Supermarine Spitfire Mk.IV, the American P-51 Mustang, C-4U Corsair, B-17, B-29 Superfortress. The Grumann F6F Hellcat was first used in 1943 and became the premier carrier fighter plane. The main Axis planes were the Bf109, the Junkers Ju- 22, and the Stuka dive-bomber bomber. The mainstay of the Japanese forces was the feared Mitsubishi Zero-sen. Smithsonian also includes the North American T28 B and the AT-6 Texan, other planes from this period

12 Aviation Through the Ages 1935 to 1950 The major air battle of WW II was the Battle of Britain. For days the much larger German Luftwaffe attacked the British Isles, but the small number of British Spitfires always seemed to know exactly where and when the German bombers would be attacking and how large of a force. The reason for this was a relatively new technology called Radar. This allowed the British ground stations to detect and identify the size, speed, distance, and trajectory of the German bombersb and send their Spitfires on perfect intercept missions

13 Aviation Through the Ages 1935 to 1950 Instrumentation was crude in comparison to today's technology. In the early days pilots relied on landmarks and sometimes even pre-set bonfires to guide them along their way. In the late 1940's, the military had developed the jet engine and began changing over to jet fighters. This resulted in faster and better performing craft. New aviation records were set. In 1947, Chuck Yeager broke the sound barrier

14 Aviation Through the Ages 1935 to 1950 Martin Aircraft - Maryland 1937 Mini-Mariner, the flying prototype of the WWII flying boat bomberb A PBM-3 Martin Mariner in flight Martin PBM-5A Mariner. This was the only amphibious version of the Mariner

15 Aviation Through the Ages 1950 to 1975 After Chuck Yeager's supersonic flight in 1947, aviation entered a new era dominated by jets. The years following the war saw the aviation industry grow in leaps and bounds. The military airforce developed more effective planes to address the arms race with Russia. The B-47 and B-52 bombersb were built to be used to deliver nuclear bombs. They were the world's heaviest bombers and could hold up to 45,000 kgsofbombs. Early bombers flew so high that the crew had to wear pressure suits but later they were used at low altitude because they were harder to locatewith radar

16 Aviation Through the Ages 1950 to 1975 In September, 1955, a contract was awarded to North American Aviation for the X-15 plane which could fly at 7200 km per hour at an altitudeof at least721 km. 54 percent of its total weight was its fuel (8,000 kg). The total weight of the X-15 was kg. Though only three of this type of plane were built they flew a total of over 200 times. The highest speed ever reached was about 7200 km per hour or Mach

17 Commercial Aviation Through the Ages 1950 to 1975 In 1958, the first American commercial jet, the 707, wasput into service by the Boeing Company. These were an instant hit with passengers who appreciated dthe faster flying time. Lockheed and Douglas Aircraft Corporations had entered the commercial id industry giving ii rise to competition and the development of new technologies. During the Vietnam War the use of military air power was in full force. President Nixon launched the only strategic bombing campaign of the war

18 Commercial Aviation Through the Ages 1975 to 2000 Concorde was the world's first supersonic commercial passenger aircraft operating regular scheduled flights. Jointly by Great Britain and France during the 1960s and 1970s. No other supersonic aircraft can fly as fast and as far as the Concorde without needing mid-flight refueling. Some military aircraft can fly faster, but need in-flight refueling. The Concorde flies literally on the edge of space, passengers can see the earth's surface curvature

19 Military Aviation Through the Ages 1975 to 2000 The Nighthawk (F-117A) first flew in 1981 and began combat in This was designed to avoid detection and mount precision attacks. It is the first stealth combat aircraft in the world. It has a top speed of 593 mph (955 kph) and is loaded with 2,000 kgs. of weapons. Laser-guided bombs, air-to-air missiles, or air-to-surface missiles. Nighthawk was coated with a radar absorbing special material

20 Special planes through the Ages 1975 to 2000 The CL-415, or "Firebird," is a very important aircraft. This aircraft is amphibious, which means it can be operated tdfrom land or water. It was developed by Canadair to stop raging forest fires and search and rescue missions, i especially on the sea. It can search for survivors for up to seven hours before refueling. It can scoop water into its tanks. Through doors in the bottom of the aircraft it drops water on the fire

21 Aviation today and tomorrow Boeing 787 designed completely on the computer It will carry passengers on routes over km Uses 20 percent less fuel for comparable missions than competition. Travels at speeds similar il to today's fastest wide bodies, Mach More cargo revenue capacity

22 Historical Perspective on Aircraft Adaptation Their wings will be bat-type or preferably bird type, long and narrow. Moreover the wings will be adjustable, so that in flight they can be reduced by a half or a third or even less The wings will be extendable in flight and their surface will be increased or decreased at will. These airplanes will be characterized by their agility but will also be of solid construction Clement Ader, Military Aviation, 1909 Circa

23 Historical Perspective on Aircraft Adaptation Wright Flyer, 1904 Wing Warping (wing twist) Curtiss June Bug, 1908 Wing flaps (hinged ailerons) 01 23

24 Aircraft Adaptation Wing Planform Concepts Vary Span Tl Telescopic wing Vary Area Variable span wing Vary Sweep Vary Tip 01 24

25 Field Adaptive Lift and Propulsion Systems Variable Inlet Geometry Wing Sweep Flaps and Slats Thrust Vectoring 01 25

26 AIRPLANE An airplane is a vehicle heavier than air, powered by an engine Held up in the air by the reaction force of flow over its wings. Fuselage Fuselage is the central body portion of an airplane which accommodates the crew and passengers or cargo. Cockpit In transport airplanes, cockpit is the space in the fuselage for the pilot and the passengers In combat airplanes it is just the pilot's compartment

27 AIRPLANE Landing gear The landing gear, located underneath the airplane, supports it while on the ground. Wings Wings are the parts of airplanes which provide lift and support the entire weight of the aircraft and its contents t while in flight

28 Aircraft Types Introduction to Aircraft types and requirements Rotary wing and Fixed wing Passenger Transport (short, medium and long haul) Cargo Transport Military aircraft (Fighters, interceptors, bombers, navy version) Civilian application (Bizjet, rescue / ambulance ) 01 28

29 BIG Engine Idea 01 29

30 Hiram Maxim 01 30

31 Hiram Maxim

32 Ultra lights 01 32

33 UAVs 01 33

34 Aircraft Build Aircraft subsystems and configurations Fuselage (types and build), Wing (types and location) Build : Spars, ribs, stringers Airfoil, sweep, twist, taper ratio, aspect ratio etc Planforms Low, shoulder, high wing Empennage (Horizontal and vertical tail, types and sizing) 01 34

35 Airplanes vary in size and shape : basic parts remain the same. Cessna Caravan Cirrus SR20 Piper Seneca Aviat Pitts S2C Eclipse 500 Gulfstream Business Jet 01 35

36 Airplanes have wings that generate lift. Low-wing High-wing 01 36

37 Airplane body is called the fuselage

38 Small airplanes have one piston engine that drives a propeller. p 01 38

39 The engine cowl covers the engine compartment

40 Small airplanes have three wheels in the landing gear. Tricycle gear, like a bike, has a third wheel in the front. Tail draggers have their third wheel in the back

41 Fuel tanks are usually located inside the wings

42 Airplanes have windshields just like a car

43 Cockpit Pilot and passengers sit in the cockpit. Most light airplanes have two, four, or six seats

44 Ailerons Left turn Right turn Left turn Left turn Ailerons on the rear edge of the wings tilt the wings for a turn or bank

45 Elevator Elevator on horizontal stabilizer, moves up or down to force the nose of the airplane up (or down.) 01 45

46 Rudder Push left rudder pedal and the plane turns left Push right rudder pedal and the plane turns right Rudder (on the vertical stabilizer) moves the airplane s nose left or right, helping it turn

47 Flaps Flaps down Flaps : change the shape of the wing to provide more lift and drag. This allows the airplane to fly slower

48 The basic parts of a airplane. The Main Parts of an Airplane 1. Propeller 2. Landing Gear 3. Right Wing Strut 4. Wing 5. Right Wing Aileron 6. Right Wing Flap 7. Fuselage 8. Horizontal Stabilizer 9. Vertical Stabilizer 10. Rudder 11. Elevator 12. Left Wing Flap 13. Left Wing Aileron 14. Door 15. Fuel Tanks 16. Windshield 17. Engine Cowl 01 48

49 4 Forces of Flight 01 49

50 Weight Center of Gravity (CG) 01 50

51 Drag Newton s 1 st Law Applies 01 51

52 Thrust Newton s 3 rd Law Applies 01 52

53 Lift Lift Thrust Drag Weight Newton s 3 rd Law Applies 01 53

54 Boeing 737 Fuselage 01 54

55 Typical Combat Aircraft 01 55

56 Tejas in flight 01 56

57 Fuselage types 01 57

58 Wing planforms 01 58

59 Empennage 01 59

60 Tail Plane 01 60

61 High Tail configuration The tailplane surfaces are kept well out of the airflow behind the wing, giving smoother flow, more predictable design characteristics, and better pitch control. Engines can mounted on rear fuselage as the tail surfaces are mounted well out of the way of This is why the T-tail arrangement is also commonly found on airliners with rearmounted engines, DC-9, Bombardier CRJ200, Embraer ERJ 145, Boeing 717, Boeing 727, Tu-134, Tu-154, Il-62, and McDonnell Douglas MD-80, McDonnell Douglas MD

62 High Tail Drawbacks The aircraft will tend to be much more prone to stall condition, where a stalled wing can lead to total loss of pitch control. The F-101 Voodoo suffered from this throughout its service life. The vertical stabilizer should be stronger, stiffer and hence heavier. The T-tail configuration has maintenance issues as the control connections to the elevators are more complex and difficult to inspect

63 01 M.S. Ramaiah School of Advanced Studies, Bengaluru 63

64 This session we briefly covered : History of flight Crucial developments Main systems and sub-systems 01 64

65 Thank you! 01 65