INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

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1 Second Edition Fundamentals of INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES Solenoid winding Electrical connection Pintle Valve needle Return spring H.N. Gupta

2 FUNDAMENTALS OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES SECOND EDITION H.N. GUPTA Professor of Mechanical Engineering Indian Institute of Technology (Banaras Hindu University) Varanasi Delhi

3 FUNDAMENTALS OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES, Second Edition H.N. Gupta 2013 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher. Fifth Printing (Second Edition) ¼ ¼ ¼ January, 2013 Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj Industrial Estate, Delhi and Printed by Rajkamal Electric Press, Plot No. 2, Phase IV, HSIDC, Kundli , Sonepat, Haryana.

4 Contents Preface xvii 1. Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines An Overview Historical Development Modern Developments Engine Classifications 4 1.5Classification of Reciprocating Engines by Application Classifications of Engines by Cylinder Arrangement Engine Components Basic Terminology Four-stroke Spark-ignition Engine Valve-timing of Four-stroke SI Engine Inlet Valve Exhaust Valve Four-stroke Compression Ignition (CI) Engines Comparison of SI and CI Engines Two-stroke Engines Comparison of Four-stroke and Two-stroke Engines Geometry of Reciprocating Engine Engine Performance Parameters Fuel Power Indicated Power (ip) Brake Power (bp) Friction Power (fp) Indicated Thermal Efficiency (h i ) Brake Thermal Efficiency (h b ) Mechanical Efficiency (h m ) Combustion Efficiency (h c ) Relative Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio (h rel ) Volumetric Efficiency (h v ) Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (imep or p mi ) 31 iii

5 iv Contents Brake Mean Effective Pressure (bmep or p mb ) Specific Fuel Consumption (sfc) Specific Power, Output per Displacement, Engine Specific Volume and Engine Specific Weight Air/Fuel and Fuel/Air Ratios 33 Review Questions 47 Problems Air-Standard Cycles and Their Analysis Introduction Air-standard Cycle Carnot Cycle Stirling Cycle Ericsson Cycle Lenoir Cycle Otto Cycle or Constant Volume Cycle Diesel Cycle Dual Combustion Cycle Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual Combustion Cycles Atkinson Cycle Miller Cycle Brayton Cycle 81 Review Questions 106 Problems Reactive Systems Introduction Properties of Air Combustion with Air Equivalence Ratio Enthalpy of Formation First Law Analysis for Steady-State Reacting Systems Enthalpy of Combustion, Internal Energy of Combustion and Heating Values Adiabatic Combustion Temperature Dissociation Chemical Equilibrium 143 Review Questions 150 Problems Fuel-Air Cycles and Their Analysis Introduction Fuel-Air Cycle Factors Affecting the Fuel-Air Cycle Composition of Cylinder Gases Variation of Specific Heats 156

6 Contents v Effect of Dissociation Effect of Number of Molecules Effect of Engine Variables on the Performance of Fuel-Air Cycles Equilibrium Charts Unburned Mixture Charts Burned Mixture Charts Relation between Unburned and Burned Mixtures 186 Review Questions 191 Problems The Actual Cycle Introduction Difference between the Actual cycle and the Fuel-Air Cycle Leakage Imperfect Mixing of Fuel and Air Progressive Burning Burning Time Losses Heat Losses to the Cylinder Walls Exhaust Blowdown Loss Fluid Friction Gas Exchange or Pumping Loss Effect of Engine Variables on Flame Speed Fuel/Air Ratio Inlet Pressure Engine Speed Engine Size Residual Gas Effect of Spark-Timing on the Actual Cycle of SI Engines Power and Efficiency of the Actual Cycle Effect of Compression Ratio Effect of Fuel/Air Ratio Frictional Losses The Actual Cycle of Compression-ignition Engines Actual and Fuel-Air Cycles of CI Engines 207 Review Questions Combustion in Spark-Ignition Engines Introduction Normal Combustion Stages of Combustion in SI Engine Flame Speed Pattern Finite Heat Release Model for Combustion Process of SI Engine Pressure and Temperature Variation as a Function of Crank Angle Effect of Spark Timing on Indicator Diagram Effect of Fuel/Air Ratio on Indicator Diagram 216

7 vi Contents 6.3 Factors Affecting Ignition Lag Nature of Fuel and Air/Fuel Ratio Initial Temperature and Pressure Compression Ratio Spark Timing Turbulence and Engine Speed Electrode Gap of Spark Plug Factors Affecting Combustion in Spark-ignition Engines Composition of the Mixture Load Compression Ratio Speed Turbulence and Shape of Combustion Chamber Spark Plug Position Cyclic Variation Rate of Pressure Rise Abnormal Combustion Autoignition and Detonation Detrimental Effects of Knocking Theories of Knocking Effect of Engine Variables on Knock Temperature, Pressure and Density Factors Time Factors Composition Factors Effect of Design Detection of Knocking Uncontrolled Combustion Preignition Run-on Surface Ignition Run-away Surface Ignition Wild Ping Rumble Combustion Chambers for Spark-ignition Engines Basic Requirements of a Good Combustion Chamber Combustion Chamber Design Principles Combustion Chamber Optimization Procedure Geometric Considerations Considerations for Cyclic Variations Consideration for Proper Turbulence Types of Combustion Chamber T-head Type Combustion Chamber L-head Type or Side Valve Combustion Chamber Ricardo Turbulent Head Side Valve Combustion Chamber Overhead-valve or I-head Type Combustion Chamber F-head Type Combustion Chamber Hemispherical Combustion Chamber Piston Cavity Combustion Chamber 244

8 Contents vii Combustion Chamber with a Pre-chamber for Lean Burn Engine Future Trends Octane Requirement 246 Review Questions 250 Problems Combustion in Compression-Ignition Engines Introduction Air Motion in CI Engines Spray Structure Stages of Combustion Heat Release Rate Air/Fuel Ratio in CI Engines Influence of Various Factors on Delay Period Combustion Knock in CI Engines Comparison of Knock in SI and CI Engines Methods of Controlling Knock in CI Engines Combustion Chamber for CI Engines Combustion Chamber Characteristics Classification of CI Engine Combustion Chambers Direct Injection (DI) Engines or Open combustion Chamber Engines Semiquiescent or Low Swirl Open Chamber Medium Swirl Open Chamber High Swirl Open Chamber ( M type) Indirect-Injection (IDI) Engines or Divided Combustion Chamber Engines Swirl or Turbulent Chamber Precombustion Chamber Air Cells Energy Cells Comparison of Characteristics of Combustion Chambers of CI Engine Starting Methods and Aids 279 Review Questions Fuels for Internal Combustion Engines Introduction Classification of Fuels Solid Fuels Brief Description of Solid Fuels Use of Solid Fuels in IC Engines Liquid Fuels Petroleum Fuels (Petra = rock + oleum = oil) Refining Process of Petroleum Petroleum-based Liquid Fuels Liquid Alternative Fuels Benzol Alcohol 292

9 viii Contents 8.5.3Biodiesel Emulsified Diesel Fuel Acetone Diethyl Ether Vegetable Oils Gaseous Alternative Fuels Natural Gas Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) Producer Gas Coal Gas Hydrogen Hythane Dimethyl Ether Biogas Characteristics of SI Engine Fuels Volatility of Liquid Fuels Effect of Volatility on the Performance of SI Engines Sulphur Content Gum Deposits Carburettor Detergent Additives Anti-knock Quality Characteristics of CI Engine Fuels Ignition Quality Volatility Viscosity Specific Gravity Corrosion and Wear Handling Ease Safety Cleanliness Knock Rating of Fuels Knock Rating of SI Engine Fuels Knock Rating of CI Engine Fuels 313 Review Questions Carburettors and Fuel Injection in SI Engines Introduction Limits of Flammability Steady-running Mixture Requirements Mixture Requirements for Maximum Power Mixture Requirements for Minimum Specific Fuel Consumption Mixture Requirements for Various Outputs Mixture Requirements for Idling, Cruising and High Power Transient Requirements Starting and Warm-up Requirements Acceleration Requirement Mixture Requirements in a Multi-cylinder Engine 323

10 Contents ix 9.6 Carburettor Requirements A Simple Carburettor Calculation of the Air/Fuel Ratio for a Simple Carburettor Air/Fuel Ratio Neglecting the Compressibility of Air Comments on Air/Fuel Ratio Supplied by a Simple Carburettor Deficiencies of the Elementary Carburettor Essential Parts of a Modern Carburettor Choke Main Metering System Idling System Accelerating System Economizer System and Power System Antipercolator Valve Types of Carburettors Down-draught, Up-draught and Horizontal-draught Carburettors Concentric and Eccentric Carburettors Multi-venturi Carburettor Problems Associated with Carburettors Ice Formation Vapour Lock in Fuel Systems Backfiring or Popping in the Carburettor Carburettor Drawbacks Fuel-Injection Systems in SI Engines Single-Point Injection (SPI) Multi-Point Fuel Injection Continuous Injection System Timed Injection System (TIS) Direct Injection Mechanical Fuel-Injection Systems Continuous Injection System with Mechanical Control Timed Injection System with Mechanical Control Electronic Fuel-Injection Systems (EFIs) Single-point Throttle Body Injection with Electronic Control Multi-point Port Injection with Electronic Control Advantages of the Multi-point Fuel-injection System Disadvantages of the Multi-point Fuel-injection System Gasoline Direct Injection 364 Review Questions 367 Problems CI Engines: Fuel-Injection System Introduction Requirements of Injection Systems Injection Systems Air-injection System Airless-or Solid-injection System 372

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