International Flows REGIONAL TABLES. Introduction. Key Trends. Key Indicators for Asia and the Pacific 2008
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1 183 International Flows The People s Republic of China has the biggest share of merchandise exports in the region. The destination of exports of major exporters tends to be other Asian economies. A similar pattern is observed in the case of origin of imports. Workers remittances (including compensation of employees) amount to more than 10% of GDP in seven economies, while large positive current account balances are observed in five economies. Significant increases in total net foreign direct investment as a percentage of GDP between and are recorded in five economies. Several Pacific economies have high official flows as a proportion of total capital inflows, and import coverage of international reserves has increased in several economies around the region since REGIONAL TABLES Introduction The statistics in this international flows theme illustrate the process of globalization in the Asia and Pacific region. Trade in goods has been growing throughout the region. Most of this trade takes place within Asia, while trade with Europe and North and Central America is much smaller. Cross-border movement of labor is another key aspect of globalization, and this has resulted in workers remittances (including compensation of employees) becoming an important source of foreign income for many countries. Capital flows include both official and private finance. Foreign direct investment (FDI) is a key component of private capital flows. It is a potent source of growth because in addition to generating employment, it is usually accompanied by transfers of technology and managerial know-how. Data on international reserves and external indebtedness, among others, are also presented in the statistical tables. Key Trends Figure 4.1a and Figure 4.1b show how the shares of merchandise exports from the Asia and Pacific region have changed between 1995 and It covers the 11 largest trading economies accounting for more than 90% of total exports in the region. The most striking feature is that by 2007, the People s Republic of China (PRC) had replaced Japan as the dominant exporter. Figure 4.1a Percentage Distribution of Merchandise Exports, 1995 Figure 4.1b Percentage Distribution of Merchandise Exports, 2007 China, People's Rep. of 10.3 Japan 30.4 Korea, Rep. of 8.6 Others 5.1 Indonesia 3.1 Australia 3.4 India 2.3 Hong Kong, China 12.0 Thailand 3.9 Malaysia 5.1 Taipei,China 7.7 Singapore 8.1 China, People's Rep. of 29.1 Japan 17.0 Others 6.2 Korea, Rep. of 8.9 Indonesia 2.7 Australia 3.4 India 3.6 Thailand 3.6 Malaysia 4.2 Taipei,China 5.9 Singapore 7.1 Hong Kong, China 8.2 Source: Derived from Table 4.8. Source: Derived from Table 4.8.
2 184 The destinations of merchandise exports are shown in Figure 4.2a for 14 major exporters. Other Asian economies are by far the biggest export market for all economies except Kazakhstan with nearly 60% of its exports (mainly petroleum products) going to Europe. The origin of merchandise imports shows a similar pattern, i.e., for most major importers, other Asian economies are the dominant source (Figure 4.2b). Figure 4.2a Destination of Merchandise Exports, 2007 (percent) Philippines Taipei,China Singapore Hong Kong, China Indonesia Australia Malaysia Thailand Korea, Rep. of Japan China, People's Rep. of Viet Nam India Kazakhstan Source: Table Asia Europe North and Central America Remittances from migrant workers (including compensation of employees) are an important source of income for many Asian countries. Figure 4.3 shows that over the last 3 years, these amounted to more than 10% of GDP in Armenia, Kiribati, Kyrgyz Republic, Nepal, Philippines, Tajikistan, and Tonga. Figure 4.3 Workers Remittances and Compensation of Employees as a Percentage of GDP, Average of Tonga Tajikistan Armenia Nepal Philippines Kyrgyz Republic Kiribati Sri Lanka Mongolia Viet Nam Bangladesh Fiji Islands Georgia Pakistan Azerbaijan Solomon Islands Cambodia Vanuatu India Indonesia Malaysia China, People's Rep. of Thailand New Zealand Australia Kazakhstan Papua New Guinea Maldives Samoa Hong Kong, China Korea, Rep. of Lao PDR Japan Source: Derived from Table 4.5. Figure 4.2b Origin of Merchandise Imports, 2007 (percent) Hong Kong, China Indonesia Viet Nam Malaysia Philippines Thailand Singapore Taipei,China Australia Korea, Rep. of Japan China, People's Rep. of Kazakhstan India The current account balance is the difference between current receipts from abroad and current payments to foreigners. A positive current balance is used to repay foreign debt or acquire foreign assets; a negative balance is financed by liquidating foreign assets or by borrowing from abroad Asia Europe North and Central America Source: Table 4.14.
3 185 Figure 4.4 shows large positive balances as a percentage of GDP in Azerbaijan, Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia, Singapore, and Uzbekistan. These economies were capital exporters lending abroad more than they borrowed. The large negative balances for Bhutan, Kiribati, Maldives, Fiji, and Federated States of Micronesia are partly the counterpart to foreign borrowing. Figure 4.4 Current Account Balance as a Percentage of GDP, Average of Latest Three Years Brunei Darussalam Singapore Azerbaijan Malaysia Uzbekistan Hong Kong, China China, People s Rep. of Turkmenistan Papua New Guinea Mongolia Taipei,China Japan Philippines Indonesia Nepal Korea, Rep. of Thailand Marshall Islands Bangladesh Source: Derived from Table 4.3. Afghanistan Lao PDR India Tajikistan Cambodia Armenia Pakistan Palau Kazakhstan Viet Nam Sri Lanka Australia Tonga Samoa New Zealand Solomon Islands Kyrgyz Republic Vanuatu Georgia Micronesia, Fed. States, of Fiji Islands Bhutan Maldives Kiribati FDI has the purpose of acquiring significant influence or outright control over a foreign enterprise. It may involve establishing a new company abroad or investing in an existing foreign enterprise. FDI is important because besides creating jobs, it usually involves the transfer of technology and managerial skills from more developed to less developed economies. The FDI data shown in Figure 4.5 refer to total net flows (i.e., net inflows minus net outflows of FDI). Comparing with , Figure 4.5 shows substantial increases in total net FDI as a percentage of GDP in Armenia, Fiji, Georgia, Mongolia, and Tajikistan. Among the five most populous economies, the PRC had the highest total net FDI percentage in the period, followed by Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, and India, in that order. Figure 4.5 Total Net Foreign Direct Investment as a Percentage of GDP, Average of and or Nearest Periods Georgia Tajikistan Mongolia Cambodia Vanuatu Armenia Kazakhstan Viet Nam Fiji Islands Lao PDR Singapore Kyrgyz Republic New Zealand Thailand Turkmenistan Solomon Islands China, People's Rep. of Pakistan Hong Kong, China Sri Lanka Maldives Bangladesh Philippines Australia Indonesia India Uzbekistan Nepal Malaysia Papua New Guinea Korea, Rep. of Taipei,China Japan Brunei Darussalam REGIONAL TABLES Source: Derived from Table
4 186 Total capital flows from abroad consist of official development loans and grants as well as FDI and other private investments. In Figure 4.6, official flows are shown as a percentage of total capital inflows. High percentages are shown for official flows to Afghanistan, Bhutan, and to several Pacific economies; low percentages are seen for PRC, India, Kazakhstan, Marshall Islands, and Philippines because a number of these economies generally tend to attract private investment more easily. Figure 4.6 Official Financial Flows as a Percentage of Total Financial Flows, 2006 Micronesia, Fed. States of Afghanistan Bhutan Cook Islands Solomon Islands Sri Lanka Tuvalu Maldives Palau Samoa Bangladesh Lao PDR Cambodia Vanuatu Kyrgyz Republic Tajikistan Viet Nam Mongolia Armenia Fiji Islands Pakistan Myanmar Georgia Indonesia Philippines India Marshall Islands China, People's Rep. of Kazakhstan Source: Derived from Tables 4.17 and coverage exceeded 10 months in Bhutan; PRC; India; Japan; Taipei,China; Turkmenistan; and Uzbekistan. Compared with 1995, import coverage was higher in 2007 in several economies, with only the Federated States of Micronesia reporting a significant fall from 10 months to 4 months. Figure 4.7 Ratio of International Reserves to Average Monthly Imports, 1995 and 2007 or Nearest Years (months) Bhutan Taipei,China Micronesia, Fed. States of Turkmenistan China, Peoples Rep. of Japan Vanuatu Samoa Singapore Thailand India Nepal Hong Kong, China Bangladesh Tonga Indonesia Mongolia New Zealand Brunei Darussalam Uzbekistan Malaysia Myanmar Kazakhstan Philippines Georgia Australia Korea, Rep. of Pakistan Kyrgyz Republic Papua New Guinea Maldives Viet Nam Armenia Cambodia Lao PDR Azerbaijan Solomon Islands Tajikistan Figure 4.7 shows international reserves divided by average monthly merchandise imports. International reserves consist of holdings by the central monetary authorities of foreign reserves, and include government bonds as well as currency, gold, Special Drawing Rights, and reserve positions in the IMF. In 2007, import Source: Table Data Issues and Comparability International trade statistics are closely monitored by the World Trade Organization and other international agencies. Common definitions are used by all countries, and the larger Asian countries use standard forms and procedures for data processing. Most of the other international transactions in this section are taken from balance of payments statistics. Countries follow guidelines of the IMF in compiling these statistics and meet regularly to discuss methodology, but many countries have difficulty in accurately recording nonofficial transactions such as workers' remittances and private capital flows.
5 187 Table 4.1 Trade in goods balance (percent of GDP) Balance of Payments Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia Kazakhstan Kyrgyz Republic Pakistan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan REGIONAL TABLES China, People s Rep. of Hong Kong, China Korea, Rep. of Mongolia Taipei,China Bangladesh Bhutan India Maldives Nepal Sri Lanka Brunei Darussalam a Cambodia Indonesia Lao PDR Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore Thailand Viet Nam Cook Islands Fiji Islands Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia, Fed. States of Nauru Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Timor-Leste b Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu Developed Member Countries Australia Japan New Zealand a Brunei Darussalam is not a developing member country but an unclassified regional member country of ADB. b GDP estimates before 2002 include the value added of activities of the United Nations, while estimates beginning 2002 exclude its value added. Sources: Country sources, ADB staff estimates using CEIC data.
6 188 Balance of Payments Table 4.2 Trade in services balance (percent of GDP) Afghanistan a Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia Kazakhstan Kyrgyz Republic Pakistan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan b China, People s Rep. of Hong Kong, China Korea, Rep. of a Mongolia Taipei,China a Bangladesh Bhutan c India Maldives Nepal Sri Lanka Brunei Darussalam d Cambodia Indonesia Lao PDR Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore Thailand Viet Nam Cook Islands Fiji Islands Kiribati Marshall Islands e Micronesia, Fed. States of a Nauru Palau a Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Timor-Leste a, f Tonga Tuvalu a Vanuatu Developed Member Countries Australia Japan New Zealand a Includes income. b Includes other goods and income starting c Prior to 2000, services, income, and transfer receipts and payments were grouped as service transfer receipts and service transfer payments. d Brunei Darussalam is not a developing member country but an unclassified regional member country of ADB. e Includes other goods and income. f GDP estimates before 2002 include the value added of activities of the United Nations, while estimates beginning 2002 exclude its value added. Sources: International Financial Statistics CD-ROM (IMF 2008), country sources.
7 189 Table 4.3 Current account balance (percent of GDP) Balance of Payments Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia Kazakhstan Kyrgyz Republic Pakistan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan REGIONAL TABLES China, People s Rep. of Hong Kong, China Korea, Rep. of Mongolia Taipei,China Bangladesh Bhutan India Maldives Nepal Sri Lanka Brunei Darussalam a Cambodia Indonesia Lao PDR Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore Thailand Viet Nam Cook Islands Fiji Islands Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia, Fed. States of Nauru Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Timor-Leste b Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu Developed Member Countries Australia Japan New Zealand a Brunei Darussalam is not a developing member country but an unclassified regional member country of ADB. b GDP estimates before 2002 include the value added of activities of the United Nations, while estimates beginning 2002 exclude its value added. Sources: Country sources, ADB staff estimates using CEIC data.
8 190 Balance of Payments Table 4.4 Workers remittances and compensation of employees, receipts (US$ million) Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia Kazakhstan Kyrgyz Republic Pakistan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan China, People s Rep. of Hong Kong, China Korea, Rep. of Mongolia Taipei,China Bangladesh Bhutan India Maldives Nepal Sri Lanka Brunei Darussalam a Cambodia Indonesia Lao PDR Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore Thailand Viet Nam Cook Islands Fiji Islands Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia, Fed. States of Nauru Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Timor-Leste Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu Developed Member Countries Australia Japan New Zealand a Brunei Darussalam is not a developing member country but an unclassified regional member country of ADB. Source: World Development Indicators Online (World Bank 2008).
9 191 Table 4.5 Workers' remittances and compensation of employees, receipts (percent of GDP) Balance of Payments Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia Kazakhstan Kyrgyz Republic Pakistan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan REGIONAL TABLES China, People s Rep. of Hong Kong, China Korea, Rep. of Mongolia Taipei,China Bangladesh Bhutan India Maldives Nepal Sri Lanka Brunei Darussalam a Cambodia Indonesia Lao PDR Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore Thailand Viet Nam Cook Islands Fiji Islands Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia, Fed. States of Nauru Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Timor-Leste Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu Developed Member Countries Australia Japan New Zealand a Brunei Darussalam is not a developing member country but an unclassified regional member country of ADB. Source: World Development Indicators Online (World Bank 2008).
10 192 Balance of Payments Table 4.6 Foreign direct investment, total net (US$ million) Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia Kazakhstan Kyrgyz Republic Pakistan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan China, People s Rep. of Hong Kong, China Korea, Rep. of Mongolia Taipei,China Bangladesh Bhutan India Maldives Nepal Sri Lanka Brunei Darussalam a Cambodia Indonesia Lao PDR Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore Thailand Viet Nam Cook Islands Fiji Islands Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia, Fed. States of Nauru Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Timor-Leste Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu Developed Member Countries Australia Japan New Zealand a Brunei Darussalam is not a developing member country but an unclassified regional member country of ADB. Sources: Country sources, ADB staff estimates using CEIC data.
11 193 Table 4.7 Foreign direct investment, total net (percent of GDP) Balance of Payments Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia Kazakhstan Kyrgyz Republic Pakistan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan REGIONAL TABLES China, People s Rep. of Hong Kong, China Korea, Rep. of Mongolia Taipei,China Bangladesh Bhutan India Maldives Nepal Sri Lanka Brunei Darussalam a Cambodia Indonesia Lao PDR Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore Thailand Viet Nam Cook Islands Fiji Islands Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia, Fed. States of Nauru Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Timor-Leste Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu Developed Member Countries Australia Japan New Zealand a Brunei Darussalam is not a developing member country but an unclassified regional member country of ADB. Sources: Country sources, ADB staff estimates using CEIC data.
12 194 External Trade Table 4.8 Merchandise exports (US$ million) Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia Kazakhstan Kyrgyz Republic Pakistan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan China, People s Rep. of Hong Kong, China Korea, Rep. of Mongolia Taipei,China Bangladesh Bhutan India Maldives Nepal Sri Lanka Brunei Darussalam a Cambodia Indonesia Lao PDR Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore b Thailand Viet Nam Cook Islands Fiji Islands Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia, Fed. States of Nauru Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Timor-Leste Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu Developed Member Countries Australia Japan New Zealand a Brunei Darussalam is not a developing member country but an unclassified regional member country of ADB. b Prior to 2003, data exclude Indonesia. Source: Country sources, International Financial Statistics CD-ROM (IMF 2008).
13 195 Table 4.9 Growth rates of merchandise exports a (percent) External Trade Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia Kazakhstan Kyrgyz Republic Pakistan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan REGIONAL TABLES China, People s Rep. of Hong Kong, China Korea, Rep. of Mongolia Taipei,China Bangladesh Bhutan India Maldives Nepal Sri Lanka Brunei Darussalam b Cambodia Indonesia Lao PDR Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore c Thailand Viet Nam Cook Islands Fiji Islands Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia, Fed. States of Nauru Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Timor-Leste Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu Developed Member Countries Australia Japan New Zealand a Rates are based on US dollar values of exports. b Brunei Darussalam is not a developing member country but an unclassified regional member country of ADB. c Prior to 2003, data exclude Indonesia. Source: Country sources, International Financial Statistics CD-ROM (IMF 2008).
14 196 External Trade Table 4.10 Merchandise imports (US$ million) Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia Kazakhstan Kyrgyz Republic Pakistan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan China, People s Rep. of Hong Kong, China Korea, Rep. of Mongolia Taipei,China Bangladesh Bhutan India Maldives Nepal Sri Lanka Brunei Darussalam a Cambodia Indonesia Lao PDR Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore b Thailand Viet Nam Cook Islands Fiji Islands Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia, Fed. States of c Nauru Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa d Solomon Islands Timor-Leste Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu Developed Member Countries Australia Japan New Zealand a Brunei Darussalam is not a developing member country but an unclassified regional member country of ADB. b Prior to 2003, data exclude Indonesia. c Starting 2000, compilation methodology shifted from fob to cif. d Starting 2000, compilation methodology shifted from cif to fob. Sources: Country sources, International Financial Statistics CD-ROM (IMF 2008).
15 197 Table 4.11 Growth rates of merchandise imports a (percent) External Trade Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia Kazakhstan Kyrgyz Republic Pakistan Tajikistan Turkmenistan Uzbekistan REGIONAL TABLES China, People s Rep. of Hong Kong, China Korea, Rep. of Mongolia Taipei,China Bangladesh Bhutan India Maldives Nepal Sri Lanka Brunei Darussalam b Cambodia Indonesia Lao PDR Malaysia Myanmar Philippines Singapore c Thailand Viet Nam Cook Islands Fiji Islands Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia, Fed. States of d Nauru Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa e Solomon Islands Timor-Leste Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu Developed Member Countries Australia Japan New Zealand a Rates are based on US dollar values of imports. b Brunei Darussalam is not a developing member country but an unclassified regional member country of ADB. c Prior to 2003, data exclude Indonesia. d Starting 2000, compilation methodology shifted from fob to cif. e Starting 2000, compilation methodology shifted from cif to fob. Sources: Country sources, International Financial Statistics CD-ROM (IMF 2008).
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