Development of the Hybrid Electric Vehicle Technology

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1 March Development of the Hybrid Electric Vehicle Technology Kamil Pyrzak Student of Institute of Control and Industrial Electronics Warsaw University of Technology ul. Koszykowa Warszawa Abstract: The aim of this paper is to present the development of the hybrid technology since 1997, mainly based on the Toyota Prius as an example of the first mass-produced hybrid vehicle in the world Special attention is paid to the topology of two systems: Toyota Hybrid System (THS) and Toyota Hybrid System II (THS II). The new hybrid system THS II is based essentially on THS. The paper is also a comparative study of hybrid technology used in different vehicles. There will be presented different brands, i.e. Honda and Ford, in order to compare their achievements and contribution to development of HEVs. Special attention will be paid to comparison of Toyota Prius and Honda Insight in order to show different solutions used by engineers of these two brands. Keywords: Series hybrid drive, parallel hybrid drive, Toyota Prius, Honda Insight, hybrid electric vehicle, battery pack, stealth mode, power split device. 1. Introduction A hybrid system is a type of powertrain that uses combination of two types of motive forces such as an internal combustion engine (ICE) and electric machine that never has to be plugged in. This system is characterized by its skillful use of two types of power sources according to the driving conditions. It maximizes the strengths of each of the motive forces and complements their weaknesses. Thus, it can achieve a highly responsive, dynamic performance, as well as a dramatic reduction in fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions. Hybrid vehicles contribute to reduce global warming by emitting fewer greenhouse gases as well as fewer pollutants, because they use less fuel while the electric motor is operating. Year 1997 was a watershed period in development of the hybrid electric vehicle technology. At that time, Toyota put the first HEV model on the market - the Prius. There was installed a Toyota Hybrid System (THS) in it, which was a new power train (Figure 1). Toyota Prius was a first mass-produced hybrid car all over the world. Toyota unveiled the Prius in October of 1997 in Japan. Three months later the Prius went on sale. The hybrid Prius was regarded as highly innovative and environmental-friendly vehicle. Meantime, in 2001 THS-C was applied to Estima Hybrid. It combined THS with the continuously variable transmission. Another system, THS-M (a mild hybrid system) was installed in the Crown. All these systems had a huge contribution to make the automotive system more innovative in 21st century. In 2003, THS has continued to evolve. Next generation of the THS, THS II was applied to a new Prius (Figure 2). It was a milestone in hybrid technology. THS II achieved improvements in power performance and fuel economy. THS II was installed in the 2004 Prius. The biggest improvements were increment of the motor output 1.5 times and greatly boosting the power supply voltage. THS used relied on the voltage battery pack between 276 and 288 V. THS II added DC to DC converter that enabled to boost the 1

2 potential of the battery to 500 V or more. This allows to use smaller battery pack and more powerful motors. The name Toyota Hybrid System was changed in Hybrid Synergy Drive. The reason of such a change was anticipation of its use in vehicles outside Toyota brand. Not only has Toyota had an influence on development of hybrid technology. Other brands, i.e. Ford and Honda, have also contributed to the development of hybrids. Figure 1. Schematic diagram of THS (Figure 3) and parallel hybrid (Figure 4). There are more hybrid topologies that are combination of these two already mentioned. Series HEV Figure 3. Series hybrid drive The series hybrid has not mechanical connection between the internal combustion engine (ICE) and the wheels. The engine is used only to charge the battery via a generator. If the battery is full, the ICE is turned off until the state of charge of battery is very low. Therefore, the ICE can run at optimal combination of speed and torque. The working point of the ICE can be chosen freely, but many energy conversions are needed. The chain of conversions looks as follows. Firstly, the thermal energy is converted into mechanical one in the ICE. Then, the generator turned it into electric energy. This is the main drawback of this connection, because in each conversion some energy is lost, because of inner resistances and friction. Series HEV allows to distribute the weight of the vehicle drive system, because both the ICE and electric machine can be mounted separately, which is one of the advantage of this kind of HEV. Parallel HEV Figure 4. Parallel hybrid drive Figure 2. Schematic diagram of THS II 2. HEV Topology The tractive system of a hybrid electric vehicle includes both an ICE and, at least, one electric motor. There are many ways of combining the included components and consequently the number of possible hybrid topology is very large, considering the combinations of electric machines and gearboxes. The two main solutions are series In the parallel hybrid topology, both energy sources (the internal combustion engine and electric machine) are mechanically connected to the wheels through the gearbox. Unlike the series topology, the parallel one does not need energy to be converted so many times, so the efficiency of the vehicle is improved. The vehicle can be propelled by either the ICE or the electric machine or both of them. So, four options are available: pure electric operation, pure ICE operation, electric operation but the ICE charges the battery and finally operation with these two power 2

3 sources. Since there are only a few energy conversion the small amount of energy is lost and the most of it is used to drive the vehicle. It is the good point of the parallel HEV. In most cases the electric motor is used for city driving, which means that cold stars are avoided in urban areas and reduces air pollution. What is different as compared to the series HEV is fact that the fixed step transmission is replaced by the continuously variable transmission (CVT). In the fixed step transmission the gears are discrete, which makes the operating point less efficient. The CVT enables to choose the most efficient operating point for given torque demands can be chosen continuously and freely. This makes the fuel consumption lower, because the fuel is used in a more efficient way. 3. Battery Pack Honda Insight Battery is a key to achieving technical and commercial success with any of the various hybrid architectures. Actually, the battery is a component that can significantly influence on the volume, weight and cost in various hybrid configurations. Automakers and battery manufactures are developing technologies enabling to improve the overall performance of the HEVs. Currently, the main electrical energy storage devices are NiMH batteries employed in hybrid electric vehicles. NiMH batteries are a reliable power sources of hybrid cars, but they are not ideal energy-storage devices. Their limitations include poor conversion efficiency, energy loss, heat production in normal usage and unsatisfactory performance at low and high temperatures. The cost of the NiMH battery pack is approximately $900 - $1500 per kwh. Other type of batteries that are used in hybrid electric vehicles is a Li-on battery. Lithium-ion batteries offer higher power and energy per unit weight and volume than NiMH batteries. Apparently, they are more suitable for hybrid technology, but the problem is the reliability for automotive applications that has not been already proven. Another drawback is its current cost that is higher in comparison to NiMH batteries. These aspects make the automakers more preferable to apply NiMH battery modules in their vehicles. In Honda Insight there is a battery pack module using nickel metal hydride (NiMh) technology in order to ensure high energy density and long service life. The manufacturer of this particular type of battery pack is Panasonic EV Energy. The battery pack used in Honda Insight Hybrid is relatively light (its weight is about 22 kg). Furthermore, the optimal operating temperature range is from -30C to +60 degrees. The voltage of each cell is equal to 1.2 V and they are connected in series to provide voltage of 144 V of a Battery Module. Its rated capacity is common and equal to 6.5 Ah, resulting in storage capacity of kwh. The main task of the Battery Module is to supply the high voltage to the IMA motor, while it is working in an assist mode. As far as, the power recovered from cruising, deceleration or braking, has to be stored, so the Battery Module can meet this requirement. Another function of the Battery Module is to charge the conventional 12V battery that is placed in the engine compartment that obviously operates the vehicle s 12V system. Honda Insight engine construction is quite different from other HEVs. The difference is that DC-DC converter is responsible for recharging 12V battery and powering the conventional 12V electrical system, because of lack of alternator or AC generator. It implies in reduced engine weight resulting in lower fuel consumption. One of the biggest advantages of such solution is higher resistance of the 12V electrical system to change of electrical system loads. The voltage remains constant under different condition i.e. wiper speed, idle stop or restart. Main tasks of the DC-DC converter are charging the Insight s 12V battery and supporting the conventional 12V electrical system. But, the battery module s voltage is at level of 144V, so it has to be reduced to 12V. Transformation of the input 144V DC into 12V DC output power is done by the converter. The transformation is not straight. Firstly, the 144V Direct Current supplied from the IMA Motor or Battery Module is converted into high AC voltage, which is then stepped down by a transformer to low AC voltage before being converted back to DC for use by the Insight s 12V electrical system. 3

4 Toyota Prius In Toyota Prius there are two batteries. One of them is commonly used lead-acid (Pb-A) 12V battery found in many other cars on the road. The second battery is the main hybrid battery dedicated to hybrid electric vehicles. Starting in 2004 to the current models, the standard Prius battery is a Panasonic Metal Case Prismatic Module. Prior to 2004 and as early as 2000 the battery used was a Panasonic Plastic Case Prismatic Module (Table 1). Each module contains 6 1,2V cells connected in series, which gives the nominal voltage of the module equal to 7,2V. The Toyota Prius Generation III battery stack consists of 28 prismatic NiMH modules. It delivers a nominal Volts and has a 6.5 Ah capacity. These nickel-metal hydride batteries are charged by an internal combustion engine (ICE) driven generator and/or by regenerative braking that captures power from deceleration and braking. Form Factor Cells (Modules) ominal Voltage ominal Capacity Specific Power Specific Energy Module Weight 1997 Prius (I Generatio n) Japan only 2000 Prius (II Generati on) 2004 Prius (III Generatio n) Cylindrical Prismatic Prismatic 240 (40) 228 (38) 168 (28) 288 V 273,6 V 201,6 V 6,0 Ah 6,5 Ah 6,5 Ah 800 W/kg 1000 W/kg 1300 W/kg 40 Wh/kg 46 Wh/kg 46 Wh/kg 1090 g 1050 g 1040 g Table 1. Development of Toyota Prius Battery Packs The complete battery pack consists of the battery stack, enclosure for structural support and airflow, battery electronic control unit/monitor, relays and safety switch. The weight of the complete battery pack is 45 kg. It is placed under or behind the rear seats. Power electronics (inverter, DC-AC converter) are under the bonnet and a blower for moving air and associated air ducts are in the boot. Discharge power capability of the Prius pack is around 20 kw at 50% SOC with regenerative capability of 14.5 kw at 2C. The power capability increases with higher temperatures and decreases at lower temperatures. Active thermal management can improve power capability at lower temperatures. Toyota s tests show that the Prius battery can do 290,000 km of normal driving with no degradation of the battery s performance. This long life is achieved by the computers control of battery pack. 4. Electric-only mode (Stealth Mode) An electric-only mode (or stealth mode) allows driver to operate on pure electric power only under low-power conditions for a limited duration of time. Any time the car is turned on and the engine is not running, it is in a stealth mode. The onboard computer controls stealth mode completely, but there are some things that driver can do to encourage it. This mode can only occur below certain speed depending on the model of the hybrid car. The stealth mode only applies to the Toyota Hybrid System (THS) and the Hybrid Synergy Drive (HSD). One of these systems is used in all Toyota, Lexus, Nissan Ford Escape and Mercury Mariner hybrids. It does not apply to Honda Hybrids. Hondas cannot run on electricity alone, since they are not full hybrid. For the Ford Escape Hybrid, it is possibly to go up to 3 km on the battery only then the gas engine will start and recharge the battery pack. The car can accelerate up to approximately 63 km/h on electric, with a gentle acceleration. When coasting, if the brake is gently tapped when passing below 48 km/h, the gasoline engine will cut off, and the coast will continue with no gasoline being consumed. Electric mode does not perform as well when below 10 C. Over 40 km/h, the gas engine will run (alone or in conjunction with the electric motor) for motive power. The Prius can go electric-only under certain conditions: slow speeds, warm engine, not accelerating too hard, good hybrid battery charge. Operation is limited in this state due to the relatively low energy capacity of the battery and the relatively low power that the electric motor can provide by itself. Under best of circumstances it takes a rather delicate 4

5 touch on the accelerator pedal to maintain electric-only operation and cruising range is limited to no more than a few blocks on level ground before the battery becomes too depleted. But running without the engine can come in very handy while slogging through very slow traffic, parking lots or other scenarios where very little power is needed to travel at short distance. Normally, the Prius will only enter stealth mode after a full-warm cycle which generally takes a few kilometers worth of travel. The maximum distance is only about 2,5 km, since it is not designed for primary traction power. For this reason, if the battery is at low level, then it is charged by the generator. Reduced energy loss improves the efficiency, since it is a measure how much energy is converted into another one. The higher the efficiency, the lower power losses. In the Figure 5, there is presented a schematic diagram of the high-voltage power circuit. The main part of it is a boost converter, denoted by the dashed line, consisting of two IGBTs, main capacitor, filter capacitor and inductor. The pair of IGBTs is responsible for switching according to the duty cycles that are calculated by the software. As a result, the battery voltage is increased to a higher level. 5. High-voltage Power Circuit High-voltage power circuit is one of the innovative components that makes the THS II better than the previous generation technology. The power control unit contains the newly developed high-voltage power circuit. The main goal of its application was to increase the supply voltage to motor and generator from 274 V (in the THS) to maximum 500 V. Another words, the THS II supply voltage was doubled in comparison to the voltage in the THS. This improvement had a big influence in current reduction. Well-known formula for work done by electricity in a given amount of time can be expressed as a multiplication of voltage and current. Obviously, this work represents the power needed for driving the motor. Based on the above relation between voltage and current, if the voltage is increased 2 times, then the current is reduced 2 times. Next, according to the Joule s Law, power loss can be expressed in terms of calories using the following relation: Calorie = Current 2 x Resistance Keeping in mind that current is reduced 2 times, because of the increment of the voltage also 2 times and using above equation, it can be calculated that power loss is reduced 4 times, assuming that the resistance is held constant (1/2 current x 1/2 current ). In the high-voltage power circuit, power is increased by increasing the voltage while keeping the current constant. There is also one important thing that has to be noticed. Namely, for the same level of power, increasing the voltage and reducing the current reduces energy loss. Figure 5. High-voltage power circuit 6. Power Split Device (PSD) The Toyota Prius transmission includes special gear set called Power Split Device (PSD). Its main task is to transfer and split the power. It very closely resembles component founds in all vehicles, a differential. The only difference is that there are multiple sources of power, rather than just one. It is often referred as planetary type, because of the orbital movement of its components. This clever gearbox hooks the gasoline engine, generator and the electric motor together. It allows the car to operate like a parallel hybrid the electric motor can power the car by itself, the gas engine can power the car by itself or they can power the car together. The PSD allows the car to operate like a series hybrid the gasoline engine can operate independently of the vehicle speed, charging the batteries or providing power to the wheels as needed. Finally, because the power split device allows the generator to start the engine, the car does not need a starter. Planetary gearbox is an essential element of the hybrid drive structure, but the size of it does not show its importance. The entire PSD is remarkably small. It can be 5

6 compared with the size of an adult hand s palm. It consists of 6 gears that are meshed together. Each of them has the ability to rotate in its unique way. It provides a wide range of power options. The very inner one is called sun gear and is placed in the center. The sun gear is surrounded by 4 gears that are called planet gears. Their shafts are fixed to the planet carrier. Around the outside there is a ring gear with teeth pointing towards the center and meshed with the planets (Figure 6). All these components rotate around the same axis as the sun. The important is the connection of the sun, planets and ring to the sources of power. The PSD is designed in a way that the output shaft of the internal combustion engine is connected to the planet carrier, the one of the motor/generator (it is usually denoted as MG1) is connected to the sun gear. The other motor generator (denoted as MG2) is connected to the ring gear. The latter is applied to drive the vehicle in both direction (forward and backward) using only electricity. It can be sometimes powered by the battery pack. When it is operating, the engine stops, which allows to save the fuel. If the driver uses the brake to slow the car down or to stop, then the ring carrier is used to create power coming from the regenerative braking. The planetary carrier causes rotation of both car s wheels while driving forward and the sun carrier generates the electricity. At time, when both planetary and sun carriers are spinning, the ring carrier can be a additional thrust to the wheels or it can reduce the RPM of the engine. The last function of the sun carrier is to start the engine. All elements of the PSD are presented in the picture below. This is only the schematic diagram of the PSD, which helps to visualize its construction. important? So, each gear consists of constant number of teeth. The ring gear has 78 teeth (directed towards the center), each planet 23 and the sun 30 teeth. As it is shown in the picture, the gears are meshed together. Based on the number of teeth we can obtain simple mathematical equations describing the relationships between the rates at which the sun, planet carrier and ring rotate. These relationships are called gear ratios. Let us imagine two gears that are meshed together and one of them has 13 teeth and the other one 21. In this case the gear ratio is equal to 13/21 which gives us 1/1.62. This means that if the smaller gear makes one revolution, then the larger one makes only 0.62 revolutions. In practical terms, the larger gear turns more slowly. Coming back to our case, we are not interested in the rotation rate of the planets since there is no connection to their shafts from outside the PSD. In order to explain and understand mentioned relationships, we can imagine two different situations taking place inside the PSD. The first case is when the planet carrier held still (it does not rotate initially) and the ring gear starts to rotate. It makes one revolution clockwise. As it was mentioned above, this gear has 78 teeth. The ring gear pass by each planet making them to rotate also clockwise by this number of teeth. Futhermore, each planet is meshed with the sun, so the sun also rotates by 78 teeth but in the opposite direction counterclockwise. Since the sun has only 30 teeth, it must make 78/30 = 2.6 revolutions. In order to connect the number of rotations of the sun and the ring gears, we can denote number of rotations made by the sun by S. R is the number of rotations made by the ring. We have to also choose the clockwise as positive direction. Finally, we obtain the following relationship: S = -2.6 * R (This is valid for the case when the planed carrier is still) Figure 6. Power Split Device (PSD) The power split device is really tricky and clever device. It is really small, but extremely important. What makes the PSD so The second case is when the ring gears held still and the planet carrier makes one revolution clockwise. This case is more difficult than previous one, so for our convenience we can take it in two steps. This time, the ring gear and the planet carrier are about to rotate one revolution clockwise together. Thus, the sun gear will also move 6

7 one revolution clockwise as well. It seems like all these parts are glued together. Then, the planet carries leaves in its new position, but the ring gears moves back to its initial position. After this movement all parts are at their desired positions. This situation is exactly reversible to the previous one. So, having the ring gear in its original position, we can see the sun gear has rotated one plus 2.6 revolutions, which gives us 3.6 revolutions clockwise. Denoting number of rotations of planet carrier by C, we obtained the following equation, which represents the relationship between the rotations of the sun and the planer carrier: S = 3.6*C (This is valid for the case when the ring gear is held still) In order to get the rotation of the sun gear, we have to combine these two considered cases. We considered two cases separately, so now we have to sum them up. As a result we obtain: S = 3.6 * C 2.6 * R The last equation, in a form as it is, does not help to understand the relationships between PSD itself and the engine and two motors used in the hybrid electric vehicle. Although, knowing the rotation rate of any two components of the PSD, we are able to find the rotation rate of the other one. To obtain the relationships between the ICE, MG1 and MG2 we can simply replace the symbols of the sun, planet and ring gears by the symbols of the MG1, ICE and MG2, respectively. Such a substitution is correct as far as the sun (S) is connected to the motor/generator 1 (MG1); the planet carrier (C) to the internal combustion engine (ICE) and the ring (R) is connected to the motor/generator 2 (MG2). Finally, the equation can be written as follows: MG1 = 3.6 * ICE 2.6 * MG2 7. Electric Motor Drive Selection of traction motor for hybrid propulsion system is a very important issue that requires special attention. In order to choose the most suitable drive, one should consider key features i.e. cost, reliability and efficiency. The main types of motors used in HEVs are: the DC motor, the induction motor (IM) and permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM). Key point in a HEV is a size of the electric motor. Choice of the proper size of it would improve performances and fuel economy. In this point, the hybridization factor (HF) plays a significant role. HF can be defined as ratio between the maximum power of the electric motor and the internal combustion engine and can be expressed as follows: HF = P EM P EM + P ICE It was proved that the highest efficiency and fuel economy is achieved for the hybridization factor in the range from 0.3 to 0.5. DC Motor DC motor have been used in construction of the HEV drive system, because of good torque-speed characteristic that suits traction requirement and easy control of their speeds. The disadvantages of DC motors are low efficiency, low reliability and higher need of maintenance, because of the presence of the mechanical commutator. Later, brushless dc motors were invented, which are very attractive from the propulsion point of view. Induction Motor (IM) Squirrel-cage IMs are the mostcommonly considered as potential candidate for the electric propulsion of HEVs on account of their reliability, low maintenance and cost, and capability of operation in tough conditions. Despite all these advantages, the IMs are not applied as HEV s dirve system. Their drawbacks mainly are high loss, low efficiency low power factor. Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) In general, PM machines have a higher efficiency as a result of the passive, PM-based field excitation. PM machines have the highest power density compared with other types of electric machines, which implies that they are lighter and occupy less space for a given 7

8 power rating. The amount of magnet material that is required for a given power rating is a key cost consideration. The cost of magnet material is high compared with the cost of the other materials used in electric motors, and design attributes that minimize the required amount of magnet material are important considerations in motor selection. The stators of PM machines are generally fabricated in the same manner as induction machine stators; however, modifications are sometimes necessary, such as the design of a stator lamination to accommodate high flux density. Figure 9. Output power vs. speed [5] In the Figure 9 there is presented a comparison of output power versus speed between THS and THS II hybrid drive system. Figure 10 shows improvement in torque in these two systems. Figure 7. Torque-speed characteristic of a PMSM 8. Motor/Generator Nowadays, in the hybrid vehicle market Toyota Prius drive system is currently considered the leader in electrical, mechanical and manufacturing innovations. Figure 8. Motor, generator of Toyota Prius (THS II) Figure 10. Torque vs. speed [5] Both the power and the torque of the motor are significantly increased in the model 2004 (THS II). The power at base speed of the 2004 model is 50 kw, which is much higher than the 33 kw of the older model. The 400 Nm torque of the THS II is also higher than the 300/350 Nm of the THS model. Toyota did manage to improve performance of the 2004 model without increasing the size of the motor. The structure of the both models is quite similar to each other, but there is one significant difference. In the THS II the motor core length is slightly shorter (3,3 inches versus 3,5). According to ORNL (Oak Bridge National Laboratory) researchers, the windings of the THS and THS II systems have the same number of turns per coils, same winding distribution and the same gauge wires. The most important difference is that the windings are connected in series instead of in parallel in the THS II system. The advantage of the series connection is the it can boost the torque. Assuming the same given current, doubling the turns of the winding that interact with the fixed 8

9 flux of the permanent magnet means doubling the torque. At the same time, twice voltage of the parallel winding is required in the case of series winding. Taking into consideration lowspeed region, the back electromotive force is low and the voltage at level of 200 V is sufficient to drive the motor. But, for highspeed operation, a special boost converter is required in order to increase the voltage to the level of 500 V. Acknowledgements I would like to deeply thank Professor Wlodzimierz Koczara from Warsaw University of Technology, who during the several weeks provided me with useful and helpful assistance. References [1] Szumanowski A., Hybrid Electric Vehicle Drives Design Edition Based on Urban Buses, Warsaw-Radom [2] C. C. Chan, The State of the Art of Electric, Hybrid, and Fuel Cell Vehicles, Proc. IEEE, vol. 95, no. 4, pp , April 2007 [3] Mehrdad Ehsani,, Yimin Gao, and John M. Miller, Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Architecture and Motor Drives, Proc. IEEE, vol. 95, no. 4, pp , April 2007, pp , April 2007 [4] [5] 9

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