Sensors & Actuators. Actuators Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento

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1 Sensors & Actuators Actuators Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento

2 Outline Mechanical actuators Electromechanical actuators Electric motors Piezo actuators Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 1

3 Actuators An electrical signal generates an action: Heat actuators (resistive heaters). Light actuators: Incandescent light bulbs or fluorescent lamps, LEDs, LCDs. Sound actuators: Speakers Mechanical actuators: relays, solenoids and motors. Mechanical actuators: generation of motion: Non electric. Electric Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento

4 Non electric mechanical actuators An action generated by non electrical form of energy: rotary motion converted to linear motion or to rotary motion with a different angular velocity; air pressure used to create motion (pneumatic actuator); liquid pressure used to create motion (hydraulic actuator) Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 3

5 Electric mechanical actuators Electrical energy transformed into mechanical energy, producing motion: Electromagnetic actuators: relay; solenoid; motor. Piezoelectric actuators Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 4

6 Relay (1) A relay is an electromechanical device actuated by energizing a wire coil which magnetically attracts an armature to physically open and close a circuit. When the circuit is open, no power is conducted across the contacts. When the circuit is closed, power is conducted to the load with virtually no voltage drop Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 5

7 Relay () Relays have two circuits: A control circuit (in green) with a coil. A load circuit (in red) with a switch. The coil controls the operation of the switch. [Source: K. Sullivan] Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 6

8 Relay operation Current flowing though the control circuit (pin 1 and 3) creates a magnetic field which causes the switch (pin 1 and ) to close. relay on relay off [Source: K. Sullivan] When current stops flowing, no magnetic field exists and the switch opens Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 7

9 Relay design Normally open: the switch remains open until the relay is energized (on). De-energized (off) Energized (on) De-energized (off) Energized (on) Normally closed: the switch remains closed until the relay is energized (on) Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 8

10 Relay contact variations Single pole, single throw Single pole, double throw SPST SPDT Double pole, single throw Double pole, double throw DPST SPDT Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 9

11 Example of application PLC operating a relay within the output module connecting the control voltage to the output port and hence to the solenoid. Internal relay contact Common port PLC Output port Control Voltage (+) Load (solenoid) Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 10

12 Commercial relays Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 11

13 Solenoid Solenoid is an actuator for linear motion. A coil wound around a cylindrical tube with a plunger (piston like cylinder) that is free to move or slide IN and OUT of the coils body. [Source: societyofrobots] Current flow through the solenoid coil winding creates a magnetic field that applies a force to the shaft attracting or repelling it Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 1

14 Magnetic field in a solenoid If the coil is long when compared with its diameter, magnetic field: B ni L B - approximate field in the center. I electric current n number of turns L length of the wire permeability of the material Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 13

15 Working principle [Source: societyofrobots] In this example, the plunger is normally outside the solenoid forced by the spring. When energized, the plunger moves inside the core of the coil assembly. When the magnetic field is turned off, the spring returns the plunger to its original Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 14

16 Solenoid types In pull type solenoids, the plunger is normally outside the solenoid forced by the spring. When energized, the force pulls the plunger into the solenoid. In push type solenoids, the spring forces the plunger into the solenoid, but when energized the plunger is pushed out Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 15

17 Applications Electronically activated door locks Pneumatic or hydraulic control valves Robotics Automotive engine management Irrigation valves to water Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 16

18 Solenoid valve A solenoid valve is a combination of two basic functional units: a solenoid and a valve body containing one or more orifices. Flow through an orifice is shut off or allowed by the movement of the core when the solenoid is energized or deenergized. [Source: reackoneup] Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 17

19 Rotary solenoids Most solenoids are linear devices. However, rotational solenoids are also available which produce an angular or rotary motion Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 18

20 Electric motor Electrical energy is converted to mechanical energy by the interaction between two magnetic attractive/repulsive forces. Magnetic fields can be created: by electric currents flowing through windings, usually wrapped around a laminated soft iron core; by permanent magnets. Motion in a motor is the result of the continuous alignment of south poles of the rotor with north poles of the stator Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 19

21 Brushed/brushless motors (1) Brushes: mechanical commutator contacts to deliver current to the windings. Example: brushed DC motor. brush commutator Brushes [Source: Wikipedia ] [Source: electronicdesign.com ] brush Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 0

22 Brushed/brushless motors () In brushless motors, the commutator is replaced by an electronic digital switching circuit. Example: Stepper motor. Vcc b0 b1 T1 b T b4 T3 b3 b5 T4 T5 T6 IB IA IC I ph Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 1

23 AC and DC motors DC motors (for position-control applications) Brushed DC motor. Brushless DC (BLDC) motor. Stepper motor (digital actuator). AC motors (primarily for high-power applications) Induction or asynchronous motor. Synchronous motor Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento

24 Electric motor types Electric motors AC DC Asynchronous Synchronous Variance reluctance Induction Sinusoidal Brushless Reluctance SR Stepper Permanent magnet Surface PM SR Switched Reluctance Wound Field Interior PM [source: Freescale ] Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 3

25 AC induction motor (1) AC voltage applied to the stator creates a rotating magnetic field. The rotating magnetic field induces an alternating e.m.f. into the rotor conductors, generating a current. This induced current in the rotor interacts with the magnetic field of the stator producing a force that results in a torque to turn the rotor. The rotor speed is less than the rotating speed of the magnetic field (synchronous speed): asynchronous motor Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 4

26 AC induction motor () When the rotor is at rest and power is applied to the stator, the stator magnetic field rotates at the synchronous speed Ns. The stator magnetic field is cutting the rotor at the synchronous speed. The interaction between the rotate magnetic field in the stator and the magnetic field in the rotor due to the induced current put the rotor to rotate. As the rotor is rotating, the rate at which stator flux cuts the rotor is the difference between synchronous speed and actual rotor speed. The ratio of actual flux cutting the rotor to synchronous speed is defined as slip Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 5

27 AC induction motor: stator Stator: the stationary part of the electromagnetic circuit. [Source: electrical-knowhow] Made of thin metal sheets, called laminations (to reduce energy losses) punched and clamped together to form a hollow cylinder with slots. Coils of insulated wires are inserted into these slots Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 6

28 Squirrel cage rotor Winding made of metal bars connected together (short circuit) at each end by a metal ring. No insulation required between the core and the bars. [Source: mpoweruk] Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 7

29 Wound rotor A set of windings not short-circuited, that are terminated to a set of slip rings, permitting to add resistors and contactors. Rotor windings Slip rings [Source: openticle] Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 8

30 Single and three phase induction motors Single phase used in home appliances (smaller loads). Three-phase used in industrial motion control systems. [source: Freescale] Example: three-phase stator (outermost) with the winding displaced by Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 9

31 Three-phase induction motor Two poles stator: One set of windings, two coils per phase. The three phase power curve is made up of three single phase sine waves separated by 10º or 1/3 of a cycle. [Source: P. Girão, 006] Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 30

32 Working principle Three phase AC induction motor with poles: Phase shift: 10º. Rotating field cycle: 1 rotation per period. 1 N s rot/s T N s 60 f s rpm 60 s N s [Source: P. Girão, 006] Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 31

33 Synchronous speed (1) Four poles stator: Two set of windings. Four coils per phase. 1 period rotation of magnetic field 360º 180º [Source: allaboutcircuits] N s 60 f rpm N s 30 f rpm [Source: quora.com] Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 3

34 Synchronous speed () Three phase AC induction motor N s 10 p f s (rpm) f s - frequency of the AC voltage (Hz) p - number of poles on the stator Rotating field cycle: 60 s N s Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 33

35 Slip The magnetic field rotates at angular speed s. The rotor runs slower than the speed of the stator field, at angular speed. The rate at which stator flux cuts the rotor is r = s -. The ratio of actual flux cutting the rotor to synchronous speed is defined as slip: s r s 1 s s 0, motor is rotating s = 1, motor stopped. s s Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 34

36 Analysis of induction motor Analysis of the induction motor can be done using an electric model based on the transformer model. E1 k E I I k stator rotor Induced voltage and current in the rotor windings (E, I ) depends on the magnitude of the magnetic field in the stator (E 1, I 1 ) and the frequency of flux variation ( r = s -I) Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 35

37 Transformer equivalent model (1) Under stationary conditions the equivalent circuit for the induction motor is identical to that of a transformer with the secondary short circuited. The difference between transformers and induction motors is the relative movement between rotor and stator Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 36

38 Transformer equivalent model () Equivalent model of stator winding per phase: R 1 X 1 stator winding resistance stator winding reactance R 0 core loss resistance X M magnetizing reactance Equivalent model of the rotor: R X rotor resistance rotor reactance Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 37

39 Transformer equivalent model (3) In a transformer primary and secondary voltages and currents have the same frequency in : I E k E 1 k I s r In the model of an induction motor: s r = s s Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 38

40 Transformer equivalent model (4) Model with s in primary and r in secondary: E k E I 1 k I Model with in both sides of the transformer with s : X sx E se Faraday s Law emf t B Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 39

41 Transformer equivalent model (5) E k E se I 1 k I jsx R I E R jx I s Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 40

42 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 41 1 X j R I E Analysis referred to the primary Transformer equivalent model (6) k E E 1 k I I 1 jx s R k I E k k I ke I E s R k R X X k

43 Power (1) Power loss (dissipated in the windings) per phase: P loss R I 1 1 R0I 0 RI Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 4

44 Power () Power delivered to the motor per phase: k X R k s P in V s I R 1 R1I 1 R0I 0 k I s Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 43

45 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 44 Power delivered to the load per phase: For the three phases Power (3) loss in out P P P I R I k s R P out I R I R R I P loss I s R k I R R I P in s s I R P out 1 s s I R P out 1 3 I R I s R P out k I I

46 Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 45 Torque (T) Torque out out P T T P s s s s 1 1 s s s I R P T s out s I R P T s out 3

47 Commercial AC induction motors. Primarily for high power applications [Source: Dytrade] [Source: kailidamotors] [Source: ehow] Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 46

48 Synchronous AC motor Synchronous motors are constant-speed motors. Speed of the motor in synchronism with line frequency (synchronous speed). Like the asynchronous motor, the synchronous motor consists of a stator and a rotor separated by an air gap. However, unlike asynchronous motor, the magnetic flux in the rotor is created by permanent magnets or by the currents from an outside source of direct current (electromagnets) Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 47

49 Stator of synchronous AC motor Similar to the AC induction rotor. A housing, a magnetic circuit, generally comprising silicon steel laminations, and windings that produce a rotating magnetic field. [Source:. electrical-knowhow.] Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 48

50 Rotor of synchronous AC motor Permanent magnets Windings powered by external DC source (brushed or brushless). [source: leeson.com] [source: processmodeling.org] Usually a second winding, the damper winding, to produce torque for motor starting Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 49

51 Commercial synchronous AC motor [Source:.Hansen smart] [Source: indiamart] [Source: Texas Instrument] More expensive than induction motors but offering higher efficiency. Used for large motor drives Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 50

52 Rotor structure (1) Salient pole (for low speed) [source: electrical-knowhow.com] [source: Chee Mun ONG] Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 51

53 Rotor structure () Round or cylindrical (high speed) [source: electrical-knowhow.com] [source: Chee Mun ONG] Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 5

54 Working principle (1) Rotor stopped: Currents in the stator windings create a rotating field. The DC current in the rotor produces a static field (brushed or brushless). Magnetic fields interact Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 53

55 Working principle () Rotor stopped: The force of attraction between stator poles and rotor poles produces a torque in clockwise direction. [source: K. Vasudevan] The rotor cannot move due to its mechanical inertia: not self starting Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 54

56 Working principle (3) [source: K. Vasudevan] North and south poles in the stator at any location change with time: a south pole becomes a north pole after half a cycle (1/f). Poles experience a force of attraction and a force of repulsion. Rotor does not start, there is a vibration Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 55

57 Working principle (4) Synchronous motor can be started as an induction motor: A damper winding (starting winding) is mounted on the rotor. The rotor winding is left unexcited. The motor starts as an induction motor. The motor speeds up and approaches synchronous speed. The rotor poles are then excited from a DC source. The rotor runs at synchronous speed Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 56

58 Working principle (5) Rotor into rotation: Poles in rotor and stator get attracted and try to maintain this alignment. A situation of balance is attained when the rotor speed is equal to the speed of the rotating field Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 57

59 Working principle (6) Rotor into rotation in the direction of the rotating field: The field of the rotor is delayed relative to rotating field by an angle. The value of the angle depends on the mechanical load in the rotor, increasing with it. While this angle does not reach half angle between poles synchronism can exist Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 58

60 Equivalent model (1) Rotor Stator (per phase) Resistance and inductance of rotor windings (X 1 and R 1 ). Resistance and inductance of stator windings per phase (X A and R A ). No voltage is induced in the rotor by the stator field (rotation at the same speed). A voltage (E A ) is induced in the stator winding by the rotor static field: depends upon rotor speed and current in the rotor (I 1 ) Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 59

61 Equivalent circuit (3) E A V R Phasor diagram of tree-phase synchronous motor per phase. jx A I A A I A 0 E A V jx A I A R A I A jx A I A R A I A EA V I A Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 60

62 Equivalent circuit (3) E A V jx A I A R A I A In a synchronous motor, the value of X A is 10 to 100 times greater than R A. R A can be neglected unless we are interested in efficiency or heating effects. Neglecting R A : V E A V jx A I A E A jx A I A I A 90º Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 61

63 Power (1) Input power (cos : motor power factor) Pin V I A cos E A V jx A I A I A Neglecting losses, the electromagnetic power (amount of power being converted from the electrical into the mechanical power): Pem P in 90º Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 6

64 Power () Pin V I A cos V jx A I A I A E A 90º 90º P in V I A cos V EA Pem V sin X A E X A A sin X A I A E I cos A A sin X I cos A A EA cos sin X A E sin A Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 63

65 DC motors The stator: permanent magnet (PM DC motor ). or electromagnets (wound-field DC motor). Rotor (armature): electric windings, generating a magnetic field when energized by the external DC current Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 64

66 Commercial DC motors [source: Galco] [source: nmbtc] [source: music.columbia.edu] Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 65

67 Types of DC motors DC motors Brushed DC motor. Brushless DC (BLDC) motor Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 66

68 Working principle of a DC motor The stator magnetic poles attract the opposite poles of the rotor. The rotor will rotate until poles are aligned with the stator poles. When the rotor reaches alignment, the brushes move across the commutator contacts and energize the next winding. Brushless DC motor substitute mechanical contacts (brushes and commutator) by control electronics Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 67

69 Stepper motor (1) DC motors (for position-control applications) Brushed DC motor. Brushless DC (BLDC) motor. Stepper motor. AC motors (primarily for high-power applications) Induction or asynchronous motor. Synchronous motor Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 68

70 Commercial stepper motors. [Source: Jameco] [Source: Haydonkerk ] [source: Wikipedia] Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 69

71 Stepper motor () This type of motor moves in a discreet way, a step at a time. It can be considered as a digital version of an electric motor. It is easily controlled with microprocessors. Used in position applications (ex: floppy disk). Can be used in open loop positioning control, without feedback loop Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 70

72 Stepper motor components Stator with multiple windings or phases energized with a DC current. Rotor that can either be magnetized or non-magnetized depending on the type of motor Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 71

73 Working principle of stepper motor Rotor rotates in order to minimize its magnetic reluctance. rotor stator Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 7

74 Types of Stepper Motors Permanent Magnet (PM). Variable Reluctance (VR). Hybrid: combining characteristics from PM and VR Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 73

75 VR stepper motor (1) Rotor made of soft iron with teeth and slots, not magnetized. [source: wisc-online] Rotor teeth are attracted to the energized stator poles to reduce reluctance of the magnetic flux between stator poles, rotating the rotor Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 74

76 VR stepper motor () [source: wisc-online] The stator poles in each pair, located in front of each other, are energized at the same time (coils in series). The way coils are wound the poles have opposite polarity Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 75

77 VR stepper motor (3) [source: wisc-online] Rotor teeth become aligned with stator poles: the rotor turns so that the magnetic flux lines pass through the iron teeth rather than through the air slots between them Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 76

78 VR stepper motor (4) [source: wisc-online] To step the motor (CCW) A and A are de-energized and B and B energized. The rotor teeth closest to the B coils will align themselves with the B poles. The next step is to de-energize coils B B and to energize C C Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 77

79 PM stepper motor (1) Rotor with permanent magnets. Stator with electromagnets (windings) Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 78

80 Outer rotor Pancake stepper motor Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 79

81 Inner rotor Inner rotor [Source: Solarbotics] Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 80

82 Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor (1) This motor has a magnetized rotor. To rotate the motor, current is flowing in each phase of the stator sequentially. Current flow generates magnetic polarity on each stator inner rotor. A A B B B B A [source: Freescale ] A Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 81

83 Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor () This motor has a magnetized rotor. To rotate the motor, current is flowing in each phase of the stator sequentially Current flow generates magnetic polarity on each stator D A B D A B C C C C B A D B D A Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 8

84 Full Step Stepper Motor A B B A The two phases alternate on and off and also reverse polarity: commutation sequence has 4 steps (90º). When the rotor aligns with one of the stator poles, the second phase is energized Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 83

85 Half Step Stepper Motor The main difference is that the second phase is turned on before the first phase is turned off: commutation sequence has 8 steps (45 º). [Source: Freescale ] Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 84

86 Phases, poles and step angle (1) Full step S N N S [Source: M. lawford] 360º Step angle poles in rotor. N N ph r 1 phase in the stator. When the current in the phase (A1 A) changes the direction the rotor moves 180º Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 85

87 Phases, poles and step angle () Full step S S N [Source: M. lawford] N poles in rotor. phase in the stator. 360º Step angle N N ph r When the phase changes (A1 A B1 B) the rotor moves 90º Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 86

88 Phases, poles and step angle (3) Full step S S S N N N poles in rotor. 360º Step angle 3 phase in the stator. N N ph r When the phase changes (A1 A B1 B) the direction the rotor moves 60º Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 87

89 Phases, poles and step angle (4) Improving the resolution: [Source: M. lawford] Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 88

90 Phases, poles and step angle (5) step 1 step Step angle 360º N N ph r step 3 4 step [Source: M. lawford] Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 89

91 Phases, poles and step angle (4) Nr poles in rotor and m phases in the stator: Step angle 360º N ph N r Lab assignment: º º Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 90

92 Piezo actuators A piezoelectric actuator converts an electrical signal into a controlled linear displacement. If displacement is prevented, a useable force will develop. Piezoelectric actuators are used to finely adjust machining tools, lenses, mirrors, or other equipment Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 91

93 Advantages of piezo actuators No rotating parts. Unaffected by magnetic fields. Fast response without delay. Compact design. High mechanical power density. Consumes power only when motion is generated,. Very high acceleration rates. Very high power generation Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 9

94 Types of piezo actuators Stack actuators Discrete ceramic disks, rings or plates with thin metal leaf electrodes interlaced between the ceramics. [Source: APC Internations] Stripe actuators (also called bending actuators) Two thin layers of piezoelectric ceramic bonded together Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 93

95 Bibliography (1) K.R. Sullivan, Understanding relays. Available at: Linear Solenoid. Solenoid Design and operation, Bicron Electronics company. Available at: Motor Types and Their Control, Summary of key motor types and control, Freescale. Available at: Induction Asynchronous machines. Available at: Rakesh Parekh, AC Induction Motor Fundamentals, Application Note AN887, Microchip Technology, 003. Application basics of operation of three-phase induction motors, Technical manual, Rockwell Automation,1996. T. Flack, Electric Power Lectures 11 and 1, Cambridge Unversity. Motor specifications, Wermac. Available at: M.V.Bakshi U.A.Bakshi, Electrical Machines III, Technical Publications Pune, 009 P. Girão, Sensores e Actuadores, Slides LEEC/MEEC, IST. 003/ Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 94

96 Bibliography () S. Shahl, Synchronous Motors, Available at: Classification of Electric Motors - Part Four. Available at: Terry Bartelt, The Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor, Wisc-online. Available at: Stepper Motor Basics, Industrial Circuits Application Note.,Solarbotics. Available at: university-logo Marc McComb, Introduction to Stepper Motors, Microchip Web Seminars. Available at: Mark Lawford, Actuators: Stepper Motors. Available at: Piezo actuators: types and applications, APC International. Available at: Sensors & Actuators - H.Sarmento 95

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