Coupling local renewable energy production with electric vehicle charging: a survey of the French case

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1 Int. J. Automotiv Tchnology an Managmnt, Vol. 6, No., Coupling local rnwabl nrgy prouction with lctric vhicl charging: a survy of th Frnch cas Paul Coani* Avanc Tchnologis an Innovation Rsarch Dpartmnt, PSA Pugot Citron, Vlizy-Villacoublay, 784, Franc an Group of Elctrical Enginring Paris (GEEPs), UMR CNRS 857, CntralSuplc, Univ Paris-Su, Sorbonn, Univrsits, UPMC Univ Paris 6, Gif-Sur-Yvtt, 99, Franc paul.coani@suplc.fr *Corrsponing author Pirr-Louis L Portz, Pirr Clavri an Marc Ptit Group of Elctrical Enginring Paris (GEEPs), UMR CNRS 857, CntralSuplc, Univ Paris-Su, Sorbonn, Univrsits, UPMC Univ Paris 6, Gif-Sur-Yvtt, 99, Franc marc.ptit@suplc.fr Yannick Prz RITM Lab, Univrsity of Paris-Su, 94 Orsay, Franc yannick.prz@u-psu.fr Abstract: Th shar of rnwabl nrgy sourcs (RES) prouction in nrgy mixs, spcially th ons of PV panls an win farms, has bn continuously incrasing uring th last fw yars. Similarly, a strong vlopmnt of battry lctric vhicls (EV) is xpct within th nxt yars. Howvr, ths two nw innovations coul triggr local scurity issus on lctrical gris. On way to mitigat ths problms coul b to combin th charging prios of th EVs with th local RES prouction. This papr aims at analysing th possibility to implmnt this kin of smart charging stratgy in Franc by 22, taking into account th wi ivrsity of local nrgy mixs in Franc an thir sasonal pnncis. Th rsults show th achivabl grn charging ratio for th EV flt pr sason an pr rgion, with an without a smart charging stratgy. Kywors: coupling; synchronisation; lctric vhicls; EV; rnwabl nrgy sourcs; RES; smart charging; charging managmnt; smart gris; Franc. Copyright 26 Inrscinc Entrpriss Lt.

2 56 P. Coani t al. Rfrnc to this papr shoul b ma as follows: Coani, P., L Portz, P-L., Clavri, P., Ptit, M. an Prz, Y. (26) Coupling local rnwabl nrgy prouction with lctric vhicl charging: a survy of th Frnch cas, Int. J. Automotiv Tchnology an Managmnt, Vol. 6, No., pp Biographical nots: Paul Coani rciv his MSc in Enrgy Enginring from Suplc Univrsity, Paris, an MSc in Physics an Enginring of Enrgy from Univrsity of Paris-Su, Paris, in 23. H is currntly pursuing his PhD on Gri Intgrat Vhicls from Suplc Univrsity. His PhD is fun by PSA Pugot Citron. Pirr-Louis L Portz rciv his BSc in Enginring from Cntral Univrsity, Paris, in 24. Currntly, h is pursuing his MSc in Enrgy Enginring from CntralSuplc Univrsity. Pirr Clavri rciv his BSc in Enginring from Cntral Univrsity, Paris, in 24. Currntly, h is pursuing his MSc in Enrgy Enginring from CntralSuplc Univrsity. Marc Ptit is a formr stunt of th Ecol Normal Supriur Cachan (Franc). H took his PhD thsis in 22 in Elctrical Enginring. Sinc 23 h is an Assistant/Associat Profssor in Suplc in th Powr an Enrgy Systms Dpartmnt whr h currntly manags th powr systm group. Sinc Novmbr 2, h is co-ha of th Arman Pugot Rsarch Chair on Elctromobility. His rsarch intrsts ar on smart gris, man rspons, powr systm protction an HVDC suprgris. Yannick Prz rciv his Mastr s gr an PhD in Economics at Univrsity La Sorbonn in Franc. H bcam Assistant Profssor at Univrsity of Crgy (2 23) an tnur Associat Profssor of Economics at Univrsity Paris-Su (sinc 23). At Univrsity Paris-Su, h is th Acamic Coorinator of th Europan Mastr Erasmus Munus in Economics an Managmnt of Ntwork Inustris. Sinc Sptmbr 2, h is also an Associat Profssor of Economics in CntralSuplc, Franc. Sinc Fbruary 22, h join th Arman Pugot Rsarch Chair on Elctromobility as an Associat Rsarchr. His spcial fils of intrst inclu nrgy markt sign an conomics of rgulation. This papr is a rvis an xpan vrsion of a papr ntitl Coupling local rnwabl nrgy prouction with lctric vhicl charging: a survy of th Frnch cas prsnt at th 2n Elctromobility: Challnging Issus, Paris, 8 9 Dcmbr 24. Introuction Europan nrgy-climat objctivs for 23 hav just bn st by Europan lars to a 4% ruction in CO 2 missions, a 27% shar of rnwabl nrgy sourcs (RES) in th nrgy mix, an a 27% incras in nrgy fficincy. Ths nvironmntal frinly policis fostr th vlopmnt of RES, mainly through th ploymnt of PV panls an win farms.

3 Coupling local rnwabl nrgy prouction with lctric vhicl charging 57 Similarly, plug-in lctric vhicls (EV) mov by lctric motors an powr by lctrochmical battris rprsnt a promising solution with rspct to ths goals. With th upcoming cras in battry costs, an th ploymnt of charging stations, EV or plug-in hybris sals ar xpct to incras within th nxt fw yars. Howvr, th incrasing pntration of ths two nw innovations brings up concrns rgaring thir impacts on th lctrical gri scurity: on on han, RES ar asynchronous an intrmittnt by natur, an istribut mostly at th istribution gri lvl. Thy coul triggr local congstion, frquncy an voltag-rlat problms, as wll as systm wi balancing issus (Sharma t al., 2; Eftkharnja t al., 23; O Sullivan t al., 24); on th othr han, if ths innovation ar not manag proprly, th massiv introuction of plug-in vhicls coul joparis gri scurity (Darabi an Frowsi, 2; Grn t al., 2; Clmnt-Nyns t al., 2). Nvrthlss, EVs hav a goo charging flxibility. In Franc, a vhicl is us in avrag 6 hours a wk, for a aily commuting trip of 24 km (CGDD, 2), what woul la to an approximat aily nrgy consumption of 4.2 kwh. Morovr, whn consiring a flt of EVs, th shar of EVs bing park nvr falls blow 75% (Parr t al., 2). As a consqunc, using EVs as buffr storag units to lvl th prouction of RES appars as a promising innovativ solution. Th coupling of RES an EVs woul rquir to synchronis EV charging prios with RES prouction prios an if vhicl-to-gri (V2G) capabilitis ar availabl to ischarg EVs in cas of substantial RES prouction shortfall. This solution coul incras th maximum pntration lvl of RES, as wll as th grn charging ratio of EVs. This concpt has bn intnsivly stui in th scintific litratur sinc its first introuction in 997 (Kmpton an Ltnr, 997). W fin that most of th litratur ithr consirs th balanc btwn RES prouction an EV charging at th systm-wi scal (Hu t al., 23; Kmpton an Tomić, 25; Buischak t al., 23), or in islan systms watching ovr frquncy viations (Almia t al., 2; Prz t al., 25). Howvr, although th systm-wi balancing mchanism prform by th transmission systm oprator (TSO) is of paramount importanc, istribution ntwork congstion an voltag constraints shoul also b consir. In, most of RES ar intgrat as istribut gnration (DG), that is at th istribution ntwork lvl (RTE, 23). Furthrmor, th 25 nrgy transition law is xpct to ncourag innovativ cntralis gnration an managmnt of th local lctricity gri. Mor prcisly, th Frnch ministr of cology has announc th cration of 2 Trritoirs a Enrgi Positiv (TEPOS). Such TEPOS shoul hav % of thir man suppli by local RES (Ministr u Dvloppmnt Durabl, 24). In this contxt, w propos to stuy, for th Frnch cas in 22, th possibility to coupl RES prouction with EVs smart charging at th local scal. In orr to o so, svral local Frnch lctricity mixs ar stui. Bas on ths obsrvations, four scnarios rprsnting th main nrgy mixs ar built. For ach mix, w propos an uniirctional nrgy managmnt systm (EMS) to optimis th EV charging stratgis with RES local prouction. Th papr is organis as follows. Sction 2 als with th survy of th various local lctricity mixs in Franc. Sction 3 prsnts th EV flt mol as wll as th EMS stratgy. Rsults an iscussions ar provi in Sction 4. Sction 5 is th conclusions.

4 58 P. Coani t al. 2 Local lctricity mixs in Franc As RES ar mainly intgrat at th istribution gri lvl an as local ntwork managmnt is incrasingly consir by policy makrs, w ar concrn with th coupling of RES prouction an EV charging at th local scal namly, at th mium voltag (MV) substation lvl (usually 63 to 2 kv voltag rop). Howvr, local nrgy mixs vary a lot from on plac to th othr an from on sason to th othr. Th aim of this sction is to analys ths iffrncs in nrgy mixs pning on th gographical location an on th sason, in Franc. 2. Data W us publicly availabl ata from Rsau transport Elctricit (RTE), th Frnch TSO, in orr to intify th iffrnt local gnration mixs in Franc. Ths ata ar frly availabl onlin (RTE, 24b). Thy provi th install RES capacity by nrgy sourc an by rgion, th instantanous powr prouction by nrgy sourc an by rgion as wll as th instantanous powr consumption by rgion (with a 3 minut tim stamp, ovr th yar 23). 2.2 Sampl charactristics W stui all th 2 rgions of mtropolitan Franc, focusing on th prouction of win farms an PV panls, as wll as on thir install capacity. Rsults show a wi ivrsity of local nrgy mixs btwn th rgions, both in trms of install capacity an in trms of instantanous prouction. Figur shows th install capacitis of rspctivly win farms an PV panls in ach rgion. Figur Install win an PV powr capacitis by rgion in Franc (MW) (s onlin vrsion for colours) Not: Th four rgions survy in mor tails ar highlight in ark gry.

5 Coupling local rnwabl nrgy prouction with lctric vhicl charging 59 In Franc, install capacitis of win an PV ar rgionally iffrnt an rflct partially th local potntial for rnwabls consiring sasonal aspcts. As a consqunc, Franc xhibits vry iffrnt rgional profils for RES an EV possibl coupling stratgis. In th South of Franc, th rgions typically hav a substantial amount of PV install capacity in comparison with thir win powr capacity. Thus, thr ar major iffrncs in RES prouction btwn th sasons; in, in sunny summr th prouction will xc by far th on in gloomy wintr. In th North of Franc, th win farm install capacitis ar mor important than thos of PV panls. Ths rgions will unrgo lss sasonal pnncis. Finally, som othr rgions prform vry ba in trms of install capacity an hav fw RES rsourcs to optimis. Figur 2 shows th prouction in two typical rgions ovr on ay, highlighting intraay variations. Figur 2 RES prouction in (a) PACA an (b) CE rgions on Dcmbr 7th, 23 (s onlin vrsion for colours) t D W Ws Ws (a) (b) 2.3 Slction of typical rgions In orr to conuct our simulations at th MV substation lvl, w n first to slct som of th aformntion rgions, with various lctricity mixs, an thn to scal thir instantanous prouction at th substation lvl. Our slction shoul compris all th iffrnt xisting nrgy mixs an various EVs potntial vlopmnt forcasts. Aftr having analys carfully all th 2 Frnch rgions, w rtain th four nxt ons (plas rfr to Figur for thir prcis location whr thy ar highlight in ark gry): Il--Franc rgion: this rgion typically has low RES prouction, ithr from PV panls or from winmills. Morovr, in this vry ns an rathr rich ara, w xpct to hav a high numbr of EVs. Champagn-Arnn (CA) rgion: this rgion typically has a significant win powr prouction, but a low PV prouction. As CA rgion is not vry conomically ynamic (in trms of shar of th national GDP) an not nsly populat, w xpct to hav a low numbr of EVs.

6 6 P. Coani t al. PACA rgion: on th contrary, this sunny rgion has an important PV prouction capacity in comparison with its win farm capacity. In this vry ns an rathr rich ara, w xpct to hav a high numbr of EVs. Mii-Pyrns (MP) rgion: this rgion has a mor ivrsifi nrgy mix, with almost as much win capacity as PV capacity. As MP rgion is not vry conomically ynamic too, w xpct to hav a low numbr of EVs. Tabl sums up th particularity of ach slct rgion with rspct to thir xpct RES prouction an EV vlopmnt forcasts. Tabl EV tak rat Th rational for rgion slction RES availabl Two RES sourcs On RES sourc Low MP CA High IDF PACA In Franc, thr ar N t = 2,24 substations (ERDF, 24). In orr to scal th rgion prouction to th substation lvl, w hav to fin th numbr of substation in ach rgion; howvr, this ata is not publicly availabl, so w uc it by scaling th numbr of substations in a rgion r, N r, proportionally to its yarly consumption shar ovr on yar [using ata from RTE (24b)], accoring to quation (): C N N C r r = t () t with C r an C t th total yarly consumption of th rgion in qustion an of all th rgions, rspctivly. As a rsult, th numbr of substations pr rgion is provi in Tabl 2. Tabl 2 Calculat numbr of substations pr rgion Rgion Numbr of substations Il--Franc 345 Champagn-Arnn 5 PACA 94 Mii-Pyrns 94 Thr ar many substations in IDF rgion bcaus it is th nsst rgion of all. PACA also concntrats many inhabitants. On th contrary, CA an MP rgions ar lss nsly populat. In orr to assss th PV an winmills prouctions in 22, w consir that th yarly rgional pntration rat uring th coming yars is qual to th last non-null yarly pntration ratio of PV/win capacity in th consir rgion. With this rathr simpl solution to forcast th 22 prio, w hav similar rsults than th on projct by th Frnch TSO (RTE, 24a).

7 Coupling local rnwabl nrgy prouction with lctric vhicl charging 6 3 Elctric vhicl flt molling 3. Elctric vhicl charactristics Bas on RTE forcasts (RTE, 24a), w assum that thr will b N EV = 5, EVs on th Frnch roas by 22. W uc th numbr of EVs in ach rgion r, N EV r, in proportion to th rgional gross national prouct (GNP) shar [ata from INSEE (24)], accoring to quation (2): N EVr GNP r = NEV (2) GNPt with GNP r an GNP t th rgional an national GNP, rspctivly. Finally, th numbr of EVs pr rgion an pr substation is provi in Tabl 3. Tabl 3 Numbr of EVs pr rgion an pr substation Rgion Numbr of EVs pr substation Il--Franc 445 Champagn-Arnn 85 PACA 83 Mii-Pyrns 24 W assum that all th vhicls ar full-lctric vhicls, with a battry capacity of 22 kwh (which corrspons to 65% of th EV battry capacitis in Franc in 23). W a th constraint.2 < SOC / SOC max <.9 with SOC an SOC max rspctivly th currnt an maximum stat of charg (SOC) of th battry; ths limits ar commonly accpt as thos within which battris shoul oprat in orr not to unrgo too significant battry war. Th fficincy of th biirctional chargrs was not takn into in this work; th authors ar currntly conucting fficincy valuation tsts on a biirctional EV, an th prliminary rsults suggst a vry wi fficincy rang ovr th ntir powr curv. As a consqunc, th authors o not fin it satisfactory to consir a stay fficincy of % as a rul of thumb. Th EV trip charactristics ar bas on svral rfrncs: intrnal PSA Pugot Citron ata, ministrial survys (CGDD, 2) an monstration projct rsults (Cross-borr Mobility for EVs, 23). Th EV flt mol is stochastic an ynamic. EV avrag istanc trips (D), partur tim (T ), aily numbr of trips (N) an sasonal nrgy consumption (E) ar provi in Tabl 4. D an T ar istribut accoring to Gaussian istributions with man μ an stanar viations σ. It is noticabl that our mol only covrs popl commuting back an forth to work uring wk ays. During wk-ns, EVs ar assum to b full tim plugg-in at hom. Obviously, covring only commuting trips in wk ays is not compltly satisfactory. Futur work will finitly consist in nlarging th authors atabass in orr to improv ths routins. Howvr, ths trips can b consir as vry structuring sinc thy account for most of th trips an rivn kilomtrs in Franc (CGDD, 2), what maks our rsults a first goo stimation bas.

8 62 P. Coani t al. Tabl 4 EV trip charactristics Paramtrs µ σ D (km) T (h) 8 A.M. 2 8 P.M. N 2 E (kwh/km) In wintr c w =.8 In summr c s = Charging station charactristics Unr our assumptions, EV ownrs commut back an forth to work vry ay apart from wkn prios. Thus, thy can charg ithr at hom, on thir primary lctric vhicl supply quipmnt (EVSE), or at work on thir sconary EVSE. EVSE charactristics ar bas on Frnch ministrial forcasts (CGDD, 23). Th rpartition of th EVSE powrs pning on thir location is provi in Tabl 5. W consir usual powr lvls corrsponing to xisting charging stations in Franc that is, 3 kw, 7 kw, 22 kw an 43 kw. Hom charging is mainly on at low powr, whil working charging stations ar mor qually istribut (although fast charging is still marginal). Tabl 5 EVSE brakown pr charging powr in 22 EVSE powr plug (kw) Primary EVSE Sconary EVSE Slow A 3 kw 93% 35% Slow B 7 kw 7% 34% Intrmiat charging 22 kw % 29% Fast charging 43 kw % 2% For primary EVSEs, w assum that all EV ownrs hav an EVSE at hom. Rgaring th pntration of EVSEs at work (sconary EVSEs), w consir two xtrm scnarios: scnario A: th pntration of sconary EVSE is % (no EV ownr is abl to charg at work) scnario B: th pntration of sconary EVSE is % (all EV ownrs ar abl to charg at work). 3.3 EMS implmntation Th aim of th EMS is to maximis th grn charging ratio of th EVs. In orr to fin our grn charging ratio, w only consir th currnt an forcast invstmnts in win an PV tchnologis an st asi th prviously install grn nrgis lik hyro or biomass. Th main rason w focus on nw rnwabl main invstmnt sourcs is that thy ar commonly consir as a thrat towar th ntwork safty an managmnt in thir actual ynamics.

9 Coupling local rnwabl nrgy prouction with lctric vhicl charging 63 In this papr, w want to invstigat th positiv outcoms of coupling RES an PV at th local ntwork lvl an s how th cntralis solution managmnt systm w propos can b a positiv rsourc for local ntworks. At ach tim stamp, th EV flt can b ivi into two groups: th EVs that n to charg at full powr for transportation ns, which ar not flxibl, an th othr EVs, which ar flxibl. Th lattr ar availabl for th EMS. Each EV i from this catgory i provis th EMS with its availabl charging powr P charg for th nxt tim stamp: i i i i SOCmax SOC () t Pcharg () t = min PEV SE, Δt (3) with i EV SE P th EVSE powr, Δt th simulation tim stamp (3 minuts), SOC max an SOC i (t) rspctivly th maximum an currnt SOC of th battry (ngativ powr valus stan for EV charging mo). Thn, pning on th currnt RES prouction P RES (t), th EMS computs th rquir charging powr from th availabl EVs PEV EMS (): t i PEV () t = max P (), () EMS charg t PRES t (4) i W assum that th EMS has a vry prcis forcast of th RES prouction ovr th nxt tim fram (5 minut), what sms plausibl consiring toay forcast accuracis of roughly on hour for win an solar lctricity gnration. Onc th rquir charging powr has bn comput, it has to b ispatch among th availabl EVs. Th stratgy implmnt consists in charging succssivly th EVs in ascning orr of SOC. Figur 3 shows th EV charging pattrns ovr on ay (March st, 23) both in th uncontroll i.. EVs hav a simpl charg-as-plugg stratgy an controll scnarios i.. EV charging pattrs ar controll by th EMS. Th EMS stratgy is clar on this figur: EV charging prios ar synchronis with RES prouction prios. i Figur 3 EV loa curv an RES prouction curv in March st, 23 for controll an uncontroll stratgis unr scnario A, (a) uncontroll charging (b) controll charging (s onlin vrsion for colours) 6 5 RES prouction EV man 25 2 X: 297 Y: RES prouction EV man Powr (kw) X: 297 Y: Powr (kw) 5 5 5:AM 2:AM 6:PM 2:PM 5:AAM 5:AM 2:AM 6:PM 2:PM 5:AM Tim Tim (a) (b)

10 64 P. Coani t al. 4 Rsults an iscussions W prform simulations ovr on yar with a 5 minut tim stamp, for th four rgions intifi in Sction 2.3. For ach simulation, w valuat th grn charging ratio of our moll EV flt, fin by th ovrall nrgy prcntag that was charg using local RES prouction. W consir two iffrnt charging stratgis: th uncontroll charging which only allows EVs to charg as plugg ; an a scon stratgy in which th EMS maximiss th grn charging ratio for EVs. 4. Uncontroll charging In this scnario, th EVs implmnt a charg-as-plugg stratgy, maning that all EV ownrs will plug thir EVs as soon as thy can, an EVs will charg as soon as thy ar plugg in. Unr this uncoorinat scnario, som wasts of RES prouction ar xpct to happn an w anticipat thm to b wors in th cas of rgions having a singl RES availabl. Rsults ar provi in Tabl 6, for ach rgion an pr sason. A istinction is ma btwn scnario A (% EVSE at working placs) an scnario B (% EVSE at working placs). Tabl 6 Rgion Grn charging ratio, uncontroll charging stratgy Scnario Grn charging ratio (%) Jan Mar Apr Jun Jul Sp Oct Dc IDF A B CA A B PACA A B MP A B Th first rsult from our simulations is that thr is not any scnario, with th solution charg as plugg by 22, in which RES prouction an EVs charging ar prfctly coupl. Th worst GCR is 7.7% (IDF, January to March, scnario A) an th bst is 99.9%. Our scon rsult is mor contrast. W xpct rgions with only on RES typ availabl to b lss fficint than th rgions with balanc nrgy mix. This trn is not confirm in our rsults u to th rlativ abunanc of RES prouction lvls compar to EVs man forcasts. Our thir rsult masurs th actual ivrsity from on rgion to anothr an from on sason to anothr. Th sasonal pnncy is substantial in th IDF rgion, with a GCR uring sunny prios twic to thr tims as high as th GCR comput in wintr prios. This is u to th importanc of th PV prouction in th GCR valus, what can b also unrstoo from th GCR improvmnt from scnario A to scnario B. On th contrary, th CA rgion, u to its vry high win prouction, has a vry high GCR for

11 Coupling local rnwabl nrgy prouction with lctric vhicl charging 65 all th scnarios an all th sasons. This trn can also b obsrv in th MP rgion, although th GCR falls own to 93% from January to March unr scnario A. Finally, th GCR of th PACA rgion is xtrmly snsitiv to th solar raiation: thr ar significant iffrncs in GCR btwn th sasons, an btwn scnarios A an B. 4.2 Controll charging In this scnario, th EV charging cisions ar controll by th EMS scrib in Sction 3.3. Rsults ar provi in Tabl 7. Tabl 7 Rgion Grn charging ratio, controll charging stratgy Scnario Grn charging ratio (%) Jan Mar Apr Jun Jul Sp Oct Dc IDF A B CA A B PACA A B MP A B Th first noticabl rsult is th grat improvmnt in GCR valus: in 2 out of 32 scnarios, w achiv to hav a prfct coupling of RES prouction an EVs charging. In all ths cass, our EMS hlps to bttr manag locally th coupling of RES an EVs. Th ivrsity of 2 incomplt GCR ns a furthr analysis: our rsults show significant iffrncs btwn th rgions. In rgions CA an MP, th grn charging ratio (GCR) achiv is % in all sasons an both scnarios. Howvr, th GCR of ths rgions was alray vry high without controlling th charging pattrns of th EVs. Similarly, in th PACA rgion, th GCR attain is % (or clos) for all sasons an all scnarios. Thus, th GCR has bn much improv in PACA, spcially unr th hypothsis of scnario A, compar to its valu in th uncontroll cas stuy. Finally, th IDF rgion GCR has also bn significantly incras by mans of th EMS stratgy. Nvrthlss, its valu is still quit low in wintr sasons, an unr scnario A hypothsis. Tabl 8 provis th conclusion of th intrst of using our EMS to improv th coupling of RES with EVs. Tabl 8 EV tak rat Th intrst in implmnting an EMS RES availabl Two RES sourcs On RES sourc Low MP: low CA: low High IDF: high PACA: high

12 66 P. Coani t al. Our simulations clarly show that our approach is mor usful in rgions whr th numbr of EVs is forcast to b significant an whr RES ar mainly consist of solar sourcs. 4.3 Discussions From th prvious rsults, w can intify iffrnt trns in th rgions ability to provi th EVs with a goo GCR. First, thr ar th rgions that o not n any EMS; th RES prouction is important compar to th EV consumption an occurs at EV charging prios. Ths rgions corrspon to th CA an MP cas stuis. Thn, thr ar th rgions such as th PACA on which hav a sufficint lvl of RES prouction, but in which th lattr is not synchronis with th EV charging prios. In this cas, th implmntation of an EMS to coupl EV charging prios an RES prouction can hav a substantial impact on th achiv GCR. Finally, thr ar th rgions in which th EV nrgy consumption xcs th RES prouction capability namly, th IDF rgion. In this kin of rgion, implmnting an EMS can improv th GCR, but th lattr will not b abl to rach %. Figur 4 an Figur 5 show th GCR volutions ovr on yar for PACA an IDF rgions, for scnarios A an B. Figur 4 Grn charging ratio for PACA ovr on yar (starting January st), for both charging stratgis an both scnario, (a) uncontroll, scnario A (b) uncontroll, scnario B (c) controll, scnario A () controll, scnario B (s onlin vrsion for colours) Grn charging ratio Grn charging ratio (a) (b) 2 Grn charging ratio Grn charging ratio (c) ()

13 Coupling local rnwabl nrgy prouction with lctric vhicl charging 67 Figur 5 Grn charging ratio for IDF ovr on yar (starting January st), for both charging stratgis an both scnario, (a) uncontroll, scnario A (b) uncontroll, scnario B (c) controll, scnario A () controll, scnario B (s onlin vrsion for colours) Grn charging ratio Grn charging ratio (a) (b) 2 Grn charging ratio Grn charging ratio (c) () 5 Conclusions Managing EV charging prios in orr to maximis th grn charging ratio of th EV flt coul b a way to mitigat local gri issus (voltag control, congstion) an to improv local consumption. Howvr, local nrgy mixs can b vry iffrnt from ach othr, an this ivrsity shoul b consir whn mntioning this solution. In this papr, th authors tackl th Frnch cas in 22.W monstrat first that thr is in a grat ivrsification of local nrgy mixs in Franc. This las to vry iffrnt grn charging ratio whn not consiring any smart charging stratgy: w hav rsults ranging from 7.7% for th IDF rgion, in wintr with scnario A to almost % for th CA rgion, for all sasons an both scnarios. Th EMS is abl to incras th GCR of rgions that ha a rathr low on without EMS. This is in particular tru for th PACA an IDF rgions, whr th EV charging prios wr poorly synchronis with th RES prouction. Futur work coul b to conuct this analysis for all th 22 rgions in Franc. W also plan to look into th maximum numbr of EVs that coul b intgrat in ach rgion in 22 with a minimum lvl of GCR. At last, w coul also inclu mor uncrtainty in th RES prouction forcast.

14 68 P. Coani t al. Acknowlgmnts This rsarch bnfits from th support of th Chair PSA Pugot Citron Automobil: Hybri tchnologis an Economy of Elctromobility, so-call Arman Pugot Chair l by Ecol CntralSuplc, ESSEC an sponsor by PEUGEOT CITROEN Automobil. Rfrncs Almia, P.M.R., Lops, J.A.P., Soars, F.J. an Sca, L. (2) Elctric vhicls participating in frquncy control: oprating islan systms with larg pntration of rnwabl powr sourcs, in 2 IEEE Tronhim PowrTch, Vol., pp. 6, IEEE, oi:.9/ptc Buischak, C., Swll, D., Thomson, H., Mach, L., Vron, D.E. an Kmpton, W. (23) Cost-minimiz combinations of win powr, solar powr an lctrochmical storag, powring th gri up to 99.9% of th tim, Journal of Powr Sourcs, Vol. 225, pp.6 74, oi:.6/j.jpowsour CGDD (2) La mobilité s Français, panorama issu l nquêt national transports t éplacmnts 28 [onlin] (accss 22 Octobr 25). CGDD (2) Ls vhiculs lctriqus n prspctivs [onlin] (accss 6 Sptmbr 25). CGDD (23) Livr Vrt sur ls infrastructurs rcharg ouvrts au public pour ls vhiculs carbons [onlin] (accss 22 Octobr 25). Clmnt-Nyns, K., Hasn, E. an Drisn, J. (2) Th impact of vhicl-to-gri on th istribution gri, Elctric Powr Systms Rsarch, Vol. 8, No., pp Cross-borr Mobility for EVs (23) Projct Rsults [onlin] francais/57.php (accss 22 Octobr 25). Darabi, Z. an Frowsi, M. (2) Aggrgat impact of plug-in hybri lctric vhicls on lctricity man profil, IEEE Transactions on Sustainabl Enrgy, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp Eftkharnja, S., Vittal, V., Kl, B. an Lohr, J. (23) Impact of incras pntration of photovoltaic gnration on powr systms, IEEE Transactions on Powr Systms, Vol. 28, No. 2, pp ERDF (24) Fonctionnmnt u rsau [onlin] (accss 3 Dcmbr 24). Grn, R.C., Wang, L. an Alam, M. (2) Th impact of plug-in hybri lctric vhicls on istribution ntworks: a rviw an outlook, Rnwabl an Sustainabl Enrgy Rviws, Vol. 5, No., pp Hu, W., Su, C., Chn, Z. an Bak-jnsn, B. (23) Optimal opration of plug-in lctric vhicls in powr systms with high win powr pntrations, IEEE Transactions on Sustainabl Enrgy, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp INSEE (24) Frnch Rgional GNP [onlin] 99&rf_i=pib-va-rg-bas-25 (accss 5 Dcmbr 24). Kmpton, W. an Ltnr, S. (997) Elctric vhicls as a nw powr lctric utilitis sourc for lctric utilitis, Transportation Rsarch Part D: Transport an Environmnt, Vol. 2, No. 3, pp Kmpton, W. an Tomić, J. (25) Vhicl-to-gri powr implmntation: from stabilizing th gri to supporting larg-scal rnwabl nrgy, Journal of Powr Sourcs, Vol. 44, No., pp

15 Coupling local rnwabl nrgy prouction with lctric vhicl charging 69 Ministr u Dvloppmnt Durabl (24) Trritoirs à Enrgi Positiv [onlin] (accss 2 Dcmbr 24). O Sullivan, J., Rogrs, A., Flynn, D., Smith, P., Mullan, A. an O Mally, M. (24) Stuying th maximum instantanous non-synchronous gnration in an islan systm frquncy stability challngs in Irlan, IEEE Transactions on Powr Systms, Vol. 29, No. 6, pp Parr, N.S., Kmpton, W., Gunslr, R.L. an Elango, V.V. (2) Elctric vhicls: how much rang is rquir for a ay of riving?, Transportation Rsarch Part C: Emrging Tchnologis, Vol. 9, No. 6, pp Prz, Y., Ptit, M., Ramos-Ral, F.J. an Marrro, G. (25) Elctric vhicl flt contributions for isolat systms. Th cas of th canary islans, Intrnational Journal of Automotiv Tchnology an Managmnt (IJATM), Vol. 5, No. 2, pp RTE (23) Panorama s énrgis rnouvlabls [onlin] (accss 6--25). RTE (24a) Bilan prvisionnl l quilibr offr-man lctricit n Franc [onlin] (accss 22 Octobr 25). RTE (24b) Eco2Mix [onlin] (accss 2 Dcmbr 24). Sharma, S., Huang, S-H. an Sarma, N. (2) Systm inrtial frquncy rspons stimation an impact of rnwabl rsourcs in ERCOT intrconnction, in 2 IEEE Powr an Enrgy Socity Gnral Mting, pp. 6, IEEE, oi:.9/pes Appnix Rgion charactristics Tabl 9 provis an ovrviw of th main charactristics of th four rgions unrstuy. Tabl 9 Rgion Calculat numbr of substations pr rgion Yarly cons. shar Numbr of substations Install PV capacity Install win capacity GDP shar Numbr of EVs pr substation IF 5.4% MW 9 MW 3.7% 445 CA 2.2% 5 68 MW 2,989 MW.9% 85 PACA 8.7% 94 3,27 MW 45 MW 7.% 83 MP 4.2% 94,645 MW 543 MW 4.% 24

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