MOTORS, VOLTAGE, EFFICIENCY AND WIRING. A Deeper Understanding
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1 MOTORS, VOLTAGE, EFFICIENCY AND WIRING A Deeper Understanding
2 An understanding of motors, voltage, efficiency, wiring, and how these concepts fit together cohesively is important for several reasons. Greater understanding in these areas will allow you to make better decisions, save money, and solve problems faster. This understanding will also allow you to work hands-on in various areas. When dealing with utilization equipment, such as motors that operate on 60-cycle power systems, the voltage standards are in multiples of 115 volts. For example, 115, 230, 460, 575, and so on. This standard was deliberately chosen to be slightly less than the voltage a utility company delivers. The reason for this is the distance between the incoming service point and the motor. This distance is often several hundred feet. When power travels through wire at these distances, there will always be voltage loss. This loss, also known as voltage drop, varies according to distance and load. At short distances, this voltage drop may be very small, perhaps less than one volt. For long, heavily loaded runs, this drop may be as much as 3 or 4%. Therefore, choosing a motor that requires voltage to be less than what the utility service provides is a good practice. DESIGN STANDARDS: WHY VOLTAGE MATTERS The design standards for motors are made to handle voltage variation of plus or minus 10% of the nameplate rating. This means that a motor name-plated at 460 volts should be able to operate successfully at 10% above, or 10% below, 460 volts. Using a 460-volt motor as an example, the motor should operate with volts as high as 506 or as low as 414. Similarly, the utility services that supply power are required (in the US and other 60 cycle countries) to provide power to the incoming port of a facility in multiples of 120 volts, plus or minus 5%. The point is, as long as the voltage of a power system is in multiples of 120 volts, plus or minus 5%, and a motor s voltage is in multiples of 115 volts, plus or minus 10%, everything should fit together and work properly.
3 DESIGN STANDARDS: WHY VOLTAGE MATTERS - CONTINUED As always, one exception does exist: 3-phase motors for the 120/208-volt power systems. Consider the following situation: You have a power system capable of providing 208 volts of power, plus or minus 5%, and you are using a motor operating at 230 volts, plus or minus 10%. See any issues? Well, if both the power system and the motor are operating at their minimum voltage requirement, a discrepancy occurs. In this scenario, the power system is supplying 198 volts of power (208 volts minus 5%) and the motor requires at least 207 volts to operate (230 volts minus 10%). In short, the motor is not getting enough voltage from the power source. There are two primary solutions to this problem. The first solution is to use motors that are rated for 200 volts, but can operate as low as 180 volts, or as high as 220 volts.
4 DESIGN STANDARDS: WHY VOLTAGE MATTERS - CONTINUED This will provide adequate coverage for the normal range that can be expected from a 120/208 system. While this approach works, and is sound from a technical standpoint, it does have its disadvantages. The worst of these disadvantages are increased cost and logistics. Using this method would mean that the complete inventory of motors of all sizes, enclosures, mechanical configurations, etc. would have to be duplicated in order to handle the motor requirements for the 120/208-volt power system. As a result, many motor companies devised a new approach to handling these smaller motors. The second solution is to use a somewhat more conservative design for the 230-volt motors. Using this new design, it is possible to create a 3-phase, tri-voltage motor with voltage ratings of /460. This approach uses the 230-volt winding and connection diagram used on the 208-volt power system. The motor manufacturer is essentially saying that this motor can successfully operate at 208 volts minus 10%, or 187 volts. This option tends to be the best solution since 208-volt power systems are often used in small motors over short distances. These short runs from the power source to the motor make the 208-volt power systems very stable, and the motor s low-voltage limit is usually not tested. Despite these power and voltage standards, when electric motors are subjected to volts above or below the nameplate rating, they often operate in unintended ways. The characteristics of a motor might change slightly, or it may be a dramatic change. In order to drive a fixed mechanical load connected to the shaft, a motor must draw a fixed amount of power from the power line. The amount of power a motor draws is roughly related to the voltage times the current (in amps). If the voltage gets low, the current must get higher to provide the same amount of power. Rising current is not itself cause for concern, unless the current exceeds the nameplate rating of a motor. When amps exceed the nameplate rating, heat builds up inside the motor. If left unchecked, this heat will eventually damage a motor. If a motor is lightly loaded and the voltage drops, the current will increase in roughly the same proportion that the voltage decreases. In other words, a 10% voltage decrease would cause a 10% amperage increase. Everything remains operational as long as a motor s current stays below the nameplate rating. In heavy loads, voltage reduction may cause the already high amperage to increase past a motor s nameplate rating. Obviously, this could cause problems. Just remember, low voltage itself is not a problem. Only when a motor s amperage pushes beyond the nameplate rating does damage occur.
5 DESIGN STANDARDS: WHY VOLTAGE MATTERS - CONTINUED It is worth noting that, with induction motors, the values of starting torque, pull-up torque, and pull-out torque all change based on the applied voltage squared. For example, a 10% reduction from nameplate voltage (say, 100% to 90%, or 230 volts to 207 volts) would reduce the starting torque, pull-up torque, and pull-out torque by a factor of.9 X.9. The resulting values would be 81% of the full voltage values. At 80% voltage, the result would be.8 x.8, or a value of 64% of the full voltage value. If this were the case, it is easy to see why it is difficult to start hard to start loads when the voltage is low. A motor s pull-out torque would also be much lower than it would be under normal voltage conditions.
6 To recap, low voltage can cause high currents, which in turn cause overheating. This overheating will subsequently lower the life of a motor. Low voltage can also reduce a motor s ability to get started and reduce the values of its pull-up and pullout torque. You might think that since low voltage increases amperage draw on motors, then high voltage would decrease amperage draw and heating of a motor. This is incorrect. Do not make this assumption. High voltage on a motor tends to push the magnetic portion of the motor into saturation, causing the motor to draw excessive current in an effort to magnetize the iron. This can lead to the iron magnetizing beyond the point that it magnetizes easily. This generally means that motors will tolerate a certain change in voltage above the nameplate rating, but extremes above the designed voltage will cause the amperage to increase, which in turn overheats the motor. Again, the obvious result is shortened motor life. The lesson here: although electric motors have a tolerance band (a buffer of plus or minus 10% of the nameplate rating), they are not meant to operate full time at these extremes. Doing so will shorten the life of the motor. The tolerance band exists to account for the day-to-day voltage variance a motor might receive while performing. There are few desirable and many undesirable results of operating an electric motor s power system at or near either end of the voltage limit. The best and most efficient operation typically occurs when a motor operates at voltages as close to the nameplate ratings as possible. EFFICIENCY: THE HIDDEN LINK TO LOWER COST This naturally leads to a discussion of efficiency. Efficiency is the measure of how well an electric motor converts the power purchased into useful work. The heating element in a stove converts 100% of the power delivered into heat. In a motor, however, not all of the purchased energy converts into usable energy. Certain losses result from the operation of a motor. These include copper losses, iron losses, friction and winding losses (associated with spinning the rotor and bearings), and
7 EFFICIENCY: THE HIDDEN LINK TO LOWER COST - CONTINUED losses due to moving cool air through the motor. An efficient motor will use better material, more material, or simply a better design to mitigate these losses. Efficiency relates directly to cost, since the electric bill be it residential, commercial, or industrial- is based on how much power the utility company delivers. To measure this, the utility company uses the kilowatt-hour. In many respects, the kilowatthour, as a unit, is comparable to a gallon of gas, or a cubic foot of natural gas. In other words, the kilowatt-hour is a basic unit of energy. It does not directly relate to amperes, and amperes will not show up on any kind of power bill. So remember, you are billed for kilowatthours, you do not necessarily pay for amperes. The term power factor will always be involved in applications where AC power is used and inductive elements exist in a circuit. For motors, you find this in the windings. If you look at the electrical flow of these motors, you will find that there are two components, known as real and borrowed power. Real power is the portion absorbed and used to do useful work. Borrowed power is literally power borrowed from the power company and used to magnetize the magnetic portion of a circuit. This power is subsequently returned to the power system
8 when the AC cycle reverses. This borrowing and returning happens on a continuous basis. Thus, the power factor is a measurement of the amount of real power used, divided by the total amount of power, both borrowed and used. Values of the power factor range from zero to one. If all the power borrowed returns unused, the power factor is zero. If all the power borrowed is used, and no power returns, the power factor is one. The power factor with motors is variable, and changes depending on how much load is placed on a motor. Note that if a customer has an extremely low power factor in the total plant electrical system, penalty charges might accrue. This is because the plant is essentially borrowing a great deal of power without paying for it. This is called a power factor penalty, and is rarely seen outside large industrial customers. WIRING GUIDE: BRINGING A MOTOR TO LIFE Of course, none of this would be possible without wiring. Understanding basic wiring procedures for common motor designs is essential to understanding the motor as a whole. Smaller motors are generally wired as 1-phase to neutral, providing them with single phase AC power. Larger motors are generally wired as 3-phase AC motors. They use all three phases of incoming power, and do not connect to the electrical neutral line. When wiring a 3-phase AC motor, you should always confirm the type of motor you are working with. This information is on the motor s faceplate. You should also see three connecting wires, as opposed to two. You must correctly determine which direction the motor will turn. This is also on the motor s nameplate, as well as in the motor manufacturer s information. Finally, attach the power leads. Wire the three motor leads to the three phases of input power. Do not use the neutral line, and if the motor does not turn in the desired direction, swap any two of the three motor wires. This will reverse the rotation of the motor. If working with a DC motor, first check the voltage rating on the nameplate and determine which wire connects to the positive side and which connects to the negative side. Finally, wire the power source to the two motor leads. If the motor rotates in the wrong direction, you can reverse the motor by swapping the connections of the two motor leads.
9 WIRING GUIDE: BRINGING A MOTOR TO LIFE - CONTINUED In single-phase AC motors, you should first find the correct power connection point. This is where the power distribution wires enter the building. Next, confirm that you are indeed working with a single-phase motor, as specified on the nameplate. Also on the nameplate is information clarifying that one particular motor wire attaches to any one of the three power phases available. The other motor wire attaches to the electrical neutral. Using wire strippers, strip approximately one inch of insulation from the end of the motor wire and secure it under the screw termination. The screw terminations are found on the power distribution panel. Again, if the motor rotates in an unintended direction, swap the input leads to reverse the motor s direction of rotation. Motors, voltage, efficiency, and wiring are among the most important concepts to understand for lowering cost. Comprehending a motor s proper functioning will save time, effort, and it will extend the life of a motor. As a result, costs decreases and efficiency increases. Understanding motors, voltage, efficiency, and wiring will ultimately lead to greater efficiency, longer motor life, and lower costs.
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