Introduction and a Brief History of Electric Aircraft 1

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1 contents Preface xi CHAPTER 1 Introduction and a Brief History of Electric Aircraft Background Electrification Trend Early Electric Flights The Solar Years All-Electric and Hybrid-Electric Way Forward Book Structure 10 References 11 CHAPTER 2 The Electric Aircraft Paradigm Scope and Stakes Route to Electric Aircraft Electrical Chain Breakdown Technology Stakes Conclusion 21 References 21 v

2 vi CHAPTER 3 Electrification of Aircraft Systems Part I: Power Generation and Distribution, Electrical Networks and Architectures Conventional Aircraft and Engine Systems More Electric Engine (MEE) Systems More Electric Aircraft (MEA) Systems Electrical Power Generation and Distribution 29 References 45 CHAPTER 4 Electrification of Aircraft Systems Part II: Replacement of Pneumatics, Enabling Technologies Pneumatic Power Generation Environmental Control System Conventional ECS Electric ECS Wing Ice Protection System Enabling Technologies Motors Power Electronics Conclusions 69 References 70 CHAPTER 5 Electrification of Aircraft Systems Part III: Shift from Hydraulic to Electric-Powered Actuation Actuation Needs for Power Transmission and Control General Considerations for PbW Actuation From Power by Pipe Towards Hydraulic-Less PbW PbW Actuator Interface to Electric Power Networks Power Control in PbW Actuators 80

3 vii Reliability Integration and Mutualization in PbW Actuation Local Generation of Hydraulic Power for Actuation Electrohydrostatic Actuators Functional and Architectural View In-Service EHAs Main Issues for Extensive Use of EHAs Electromechanical Actuators Functional and Architectural Aspects In-Service EMAs Imperfections of Technological Realization Maturation of EMAs Challenges with Generalization of PbW Actuation Important Considerations for Use of PbW Actuation Evolution Towards All-PbW Actuation 101 References 102 SAE- and ISO-Related Documents 102 Acronyms 102 CHAPTER 6 Propulsion Options for the Electric Aircraft Conventional Engines Gas Turbine Turboprop Engine Turbofan Engine Efficiency Noise Bleedless Engines for the More Electric Aircraft Propulsion Systems for the Electric Aircraft Enabling Architectures Electric Propulsion Hybrid-Electric Propulsion Distributed Electric Propulsion (DEP) Enabling Technologies Motors Motor Controls 126

4 viii Motor and Motor Control Demonstrators Materials Superconducting Electrical Systems Fuel Cells Batteries Conclusion 132 References 133 CHAPTER 7 Aircraft Applications Part I: Electric Propulsion, Electric Taxiing Battery Electric Propulsion Small General Aviation Urban Air Transportation Fuel Cell Electric Propulsion Commuter Aircraft Battery Electric Propulsion Regional Aircraft Battery Electric Propulsion Short-Range Aircraft Electric Taxiing Short-Range Aircraft Operation System Configurations and Performance Nose Landing Gear Actuation Main Landing Gear Actuation Business Models Conclusions 158 References 158 CHAPTER 8 Aircraft Applications Part II: Hybrid-Electric Propulsion Fuel Cell Parallel HEP: Commuter Aircraft Battery Series HEP: Commuter Aircraft Battery Parallel HEP: Short-Range Aircraft Battery Series HEP: Short-Range Aircraft Battery Distributed HEP: Commuter Aircraft Battery Distributed HEP: Regional Aircraft 169

5 ix 8.7 Distributed HEP: Short-Range Aircraft No-Battery Partial Turboelectric DHEP Fuel Cell Partial Turboelectric DHEP No-Battery Total Turboelectric DHEP Battery Total Turboelectric DHEP SMES Total Turboelectric DHEP: Long-Range Aircraft Conclusions 177 References 178 CHAPTER 9 Maintainability and Operational Overview Ground Operations Maintenance State of the Art Maintenance Planning Maintenance Prediction Condition Monitoring Changes for More Electric Aircraft Changes for an Electric Aircraft Airport Operations Infrastructure Aircraft Handling Refueling/Recharging Pushback/Taxiing In-Flight Operations Flight Deck Operations Complex Configurations/Licenses Single Pilot Operations Autonomous Flight Pilots as Drone Operators Cabin Operations 196 References 197 CHAPTER 10 Performance and Business Value of Electric Aircraft Airline Cost Structure Aircraft Fuel Costs 202

6 x 10.3 Airline Fuel Efficiency Business Aviation Short-Range Aircraft Long-Range Aircraft Regional Aircraft General Aviation Cost of Ownership Environmental Footprint 226 References 230 Conclusion 233 About the Authors 235 Index 237

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