Uptake of cleaner fuels

Transcription

1 The introduction of unleaded petrol is a major success story in the EU (total inland deliveries rose from 0 % in 1985 to over 80 % in 1999). Leaded petrol is expected to be completely phased out by As far as leaded petrol is concerned, the objective of switching to less environmentally harmful fuels has thus been achieved. Despite efforts at the EU level to promote alternative (electricity, natural gas, fuel cells) and renewable energy sources (biofuels) for transport, these still have a low penetration. However, the share of LPG and natural gas in total energy consumption by road transport has been rising since 1992 (except for a small decrease in 1996). Although alternative fuels still account for only a small fraction of total fuels sold, their usage is increasing. Figure 1: Unleaded fuel use in the EU, % of total petrol sales Source: Eurostat, 2001; EEA, 2000 Objective Switch to more environmentally friendly fuels (e.g. phase out leaded fuels). Definition The market share of cleaner fuels (unleaded petrol and low-sulphur fuel) and alternative fuels (electricity, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), natural gas, alcohol mixtures, hydrogen and biofuels). The findings from this fact sheet are related to #Specific emissions, #Energy efficiency and specific CO2 emissions and #Proportion vehicle fleet meeting certain emission standards. The findings can be further explained by the #Vehicle ownership and #Average age of the vehicle fleet. Version

2 Policy and targets Auto-Oil Programme I and II (European Commission, 2000a) Directive on the quality of petrol and diesel fuels White Paper Energy for the Future: Renewable sources of energy (European Commission, 1997) Green Paper Towards a European strategy for the security of energy supply (European The Auto-Oil programmes (initiated in 1992) were designed to provide the technical and economic basis for cost-effective vehicle and fuel standards. The Auto Oil Programme I resulted in the adaptation of Directive 98/70/EC (see below) on fuel quality to take effect from The Council and the European Parliament, however, decided also to include mandatory standards for 2005 in this Directive. These mandatory standards were not complete. For this reason, a revision of the Directive was envisaged by Article 9 of the Directive, which should form an integral part of the Community s strategy for meeting the requirements of Community air quality standards and related objectives. Completion of the mandatory 2005 specifications was therefore one of the measures for which Auto Oil II was to provide a technical foundation. A revision of the Directive would not include limits on sulphur in petrol and diesel, since these had already been set to 50 ppm in the Directive. A recent study commissioned by the European Commission shows that further limitation of the maximum sulphur content in both diesel and petrol fuels may result in additional benefits (DG Environment, 2000). Most benefits are expected from emission reduction of different pollutants and increased fuel efficiency. However, the magnitude of such benefits is still unclear, especially in relation to the additional energy needed to further refine petrol and diesel. It is expected that, based on the aforementioned study, a proposal to amend Directive 98/70/EC can be adopted at the beginning of Directive 98/70/EC 1 relating to fuel quality sets quantitative targets for 1 January 2000, including: Phase out leaded petrol; Reduction of the sulphur content in petrol and diesel to a maximum of 150 and 50 mg/kg, respectively; Reduction of the benzene content of petrol to a maximum of 1 %. With Directive 98/70/EC, an almost complete phase-out of leaded fuel should be achieved in Due to derogations, however, a complete phase-out will not be achieved before The European Commission s White Paper Energy for the Future: Renewable sources of energy sets out a Community Strategy and an Action Plan to increase the market penetration of renewable energy sources. The objective of the White Paper is to raise the share of renewable energy sources to 12 % of the Union's gross domestic energy consumption by With respect to fuels, the objectives of a 7 % use of biofuels in 2010, and a target of 20 % for all fuel substitutes for 2020 is also included. This Green Paper from 2000 states: Unless specific measures are taken to disengage the oil sector, especially in transport, oil dependence could reach 90 % by Intensive efforts are needed to replace oil with other alternative sources of energy and to curb consumption in the road transport sector where oil consumption has risen from 18 % in 1973 to 1 Official Journal L 350, 28/12/1998 p Version

3 Commission, 2000b) ALTENER II 2 THERMIE and RTD on energy, environment and sustainable development 3 At Member state level: Sweden France Italy 50 % in 2000 [of energy used in the transport sector]. The current absence of any real oil substitute (biofuels, natural gas), principally in the transport sector, would make any prolonged oil crisis critical. Europe s economy must learn to live with oil prices above USD 20. The ALTENER II programme is the main instrument for supporting and monitoring the EU strategy on renewable energy sources and promoting activities within the Action Plan for renewable sources of energy. The THERMIE programme aims to promote more efficient energy technology and is now part of the specific programme of research, technological development and demonstration (RTD) on energy, environment and sustainable development for One of the key priorities within this programme is promoting usage of new and renewable energy sources. Sweden aims to increase the proportion of environmentally-friendly fuels to at least 1 % by the year Public bodies in France operating more than 20 vehicles are obliged to acquire 20 % of alternative-fuel vehicles as the older ones are replaced. Provisions have also been made for encouraging the purchase of electric cars through financial aid packages. Public administrations in Italy are obliged to gradually replace their M1 and N1 vehicles (passenger vehicles with maximum 9 seats) with LPG, methane or electric vehicles. 50% of the vehicles in their fleets should, theoretically, use alternative fuels by Findings Some alternative fuels, particularly electricity and hydrogen, simply move some of the air pollution (including CO 2 ) elsewhere, unless renewable or nuclear sources are used for the production of these fuels. Nevertheless, electric engines may be less damaging to health and certainly produce less noise. Share of unleaded fuel The phase-out of leaded petrol is one of the most successful integration policies in the European Union. Unleaded petrol was introduced in Europe in The share of unleaded petrol increased on average by 5.7 % per year, reaching over 80 % in There are considerable variations between the Member States. In Denmark, the Netherlands, Austria and Sweden, leaded petrol is no longer sold, while in Spain and Greece 54 % of petrol sold is unleaded. Spain has recently adopted a Royal Decree, aiming at phasing out leaded petrol from 1 August In Portugal, the share of unleaded petrol sold increased remarkably by almost 30 % in 1998 to 82.1 % in Official Journal L 079, 30/03/2000 p.1 3 Official Journal L 064, 12/03/1999 p Version

4 Share of alternative fuels Despite efforts at EU level to promote alternative (electricity, natural gas, fuel cells) and renewable energy sources (including biofuels, see box 2) for transport, their penetration is still low. The consumption of all petrol sold in the EU, expressed in oil equivalents, increased by 2.5 % per year between 1985 and The consumption of LPG and natural gas for transport increased less rapidly (about 1.8 % and 2.0 % per year, respectively, between 1985 and 1998). The share of LPG and natural gas in total energy consumption by road transport has thus decreased (from 1.5 % in 1985 to 1.4 % in 1998). However, this share was lowest in 1992 (1.2 %) and has since increased (except for a minor decline in 1996). Figure 2: Consumption of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and natural gas by road transport and share in total fuel consumption in the EU Consumption in ktoe Consumption of natural gas by road transport Share of LPG and NG in total fuel sold for road transport Consumption of LPG by road transport Share in % Biofuel Source: Eurostat, 2001 Usage of biomass, mainly useful in the transport sector (biofuels), is actively promoted by the European Commission. Subsidies are given to full-scale applications (for hydrogen, applications are still more experimental, see box 1). The Commission s Green Paper Towards a European strategy for the security of energy supply states: Despite their high production costs, it is important to ensure the continuing and growing presence of biofuels and other alternative fuels in the fuel market. Biofuels can be divided primarily into biodiesels (70 to 80 % coming from organic oils and sunflower, etc.) and alcohols coming from beetroot, wheat, sorghum, etc. Numerous production options are available, preference being given to high-yield crops with low intermediate input and no effect on biodiversity. Biodiesel could be used without any major technical problems to replace normal diesel. As for alcohols, these can be mixed with conventional petrol up to a level of around 15 % without any technical modifications having to be made to the vehicle fleet. In terms of environmental impact, biofuels are very attractive, emitting between 40 and 80 % less in the way of greenhouse gases than other fossil fuels. They also give off less particulate and carbon monoxide and hydroxide. Version

5 The proportionate share of biofuels in the European Union is still small, amounting to 0.15 %, of the total consumption of mineral oils as fuel in The principal obstacle to their use is the price differential with fossil fuel which currently varies from 1.5 (biodiesel) to 4 for products before tax. As part of the target of doubling the share of renewable energy sources by 2010, the Commission puts the contribution of bioenergy in its 1997 White Paper on renewable sources of energy at 7 % of total consumption by The Green Paper continues: Member States should make a firm commitment to achieving the ambitious and realistic objective White Paper for The Green Paper also calls for fiscal measures, voluntary agreements with the industry, and research. Box 1: Interesting prospect: city buses running on hydrogen In two years in ten European cities, a demonstration project will be started with city buses running on hydrogen. In Amsterdam three clean buses, emitting only evaporated water, will be used in normal line services, with a total of thirty in European cities. The Amsterdam project costs about 50 million Euro. It is expected that the European Commission will contribute 30 %. The Municipal Public Transport Corporation of Amsterdam also expects subsidies from the city government and national ministries responsible for environment and transport. The Director Technology of the Municipal Public Transport Corporation expects that in years about 20 % of city buses will be fuelled by hydrogen. In Turin there is also a hydrogen bus project. The basis focus of the hydrogen bus zero emissions project is to realistically assess the costs and benefits of fuel cell buses and the associated ground systems while keeping in mind the specific safety needs associated with their movement in the urban environment. The final goal of this project will be an assessment of the feasibility of the use of a clean energy source for the transport system, by proving that it is possible to start out with water, produce hydrogen by means of electrical energy which in its turn is obtained from water, and release water into the atmosphere as the sole output of the cycle. The project costs are about 5.5 million Euro. Source: Volkskrant, 2000; OECD,2000 Box 2: Alternative fuels Although the penetration of alternative fuels within the EU is still very low, there are some promising possiblilities. Alternative fuels (i.e. not based on fossil fuels) have great potential in reducing emissions from engines. Natural gas Natural gas is used mainly in its compressed form (CNG) but can also be used in its liquefied form (LNG). It consists primarily of methane (90 %) with a mixture of other hydrocarbons. It is derived from gas wells or in conjunction with crude oil production. To obtain the liquefied version, the gas must be cooled considerably and stored in insulated tanks. Since natural gas is most commonly used in the compressed form, special refueling stations are needed in order to pressurise the gas sufficiently for in-vehicle storage. Alcohols Alcohols, such as methanol and ethanol, are widely promoted as clean fuels, as they have many desirable combustion and emission characteristics. Methanol can be produced from natural gas, Version

6 crude oil, biomass and urban refuse. Processing agricultural crops such as sugar cane or corn can produce ethanol. Pure alcohols are not suitable for automotive use, due to cold starting problems. Therefore, blends containing up to 85 % of the alcohols are used instead. Dimethyl Ether (DME) DME is produced out of natural gas, coal or from renewable energy sources or waste, and has been shown to be a viable alternative for diesel-fuelled engines. Its combustion characteristics are similar to those of diesel fuel and little modification to the engine is required. Biodiesel Biodiesel is produced from renewable lipid feedstock, such as vegetable oils and animal fats. Many vegetable oils and animal fats have been examined as diesel fuel substitutes, including rapeseed oil methyl ester (RME) and soy methyl ester (SME). Other Electric, hybrid and fuel cell vehicles all use electricity as their main propulsion source. However, electricity is not discussed as a fuel type in this fact sheet. For a discussion about future (alternative) vehicle types is referred to #Size of the vehicle fleet. Table 1 shows the (dis-) advantages of the different types of alternative fuels. One major obstacle to the introduction of alternative fuels, besides technical obstacles, is the price of those fuels compared to conventional fuels. The introduction of a carbon tax, differentiated according to content of fossil fuel, can dramatically alter the position of alternative fuels and boost its introduction. Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of various types of alternative fuels Aternative fuel Advantages Disadvantages Natural gas Very low emission compared to diesel Low NOx emission compared to advanced diesel engines Zero sulphate and SO2 emission More complex refuelling system 4 times larger tank requirement Reduced engine efficiency Increased methane emissions Alcohols Dimethyl ether Biodiesel High octane number Low NOx emission Zero sulphate and SO2 emission Low evaporative losses Little modification to the diesel engine required Very low particle emission Zero sulphate and SO2 emission Lower engine noise Low NOx levels without after treatment Higher cetane number Good lubricity Zero sulphate and SO2 emission Particulates of lower toxicity (same mass emission) Cold start problems Increased odour More corrosive than hydrocarbons Larger fuel tank Safety and handling problems Lower viscosity The injection system needs to be developed Their corrosion properties Lower heating value Higher freezing point Increased NO x emission Increased odour Version

7 Future work Data limitations preclude the presentation of modal breakdowns for this indicator. The feasibility of providing such information needs to be established. Data Table 2: Share of unleaded fuel in total petrol consumption Unit: percentage EU-15 B DK D EL E F IRL I L NL A P FIN S UK Source: Eurostat, 2001; EEA, 2000 Meta data Technical information Data sources: Inland deliveries of petrol from Eurostat Statistical Compendium 2001 {Version November 2000}; Data for Austria, Finland and Sweden, from TERM 2000 (EEA, 2000). Description of data: Inland total delivery, leaded, unleaded, share of unleaded. File: Uptake of cleaner and alternative fuels.xls Original measure units: Tonne Original purpose: Unknown Geographical coverage: EU-15 (Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Spain, France, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Austria, Portugal, Finland, Sweden and the United Kingdom). Temporal coverage: Methodology and frequency of data collection: Methodology of data manipulation: Qualitative information Strength and weakness (at data level): Version

8 Reliability, accuracy, robustness, uncertainty (at data level): Further work required (for data level and indicator level): References DG Environment, 2000: Consultation on the Need to Reduce the Sulphur Content of Petrol and Diesel Fuels Below 50 ppm: - A Policy Makers Summary. A report produced for the European Commission, DG Environment. Marsh, G., Hill, N., Sully, J., AEA Technology - environment. Oxfordshire, United Kingdom, November EEA, 2000: Are we moving in the right direction? Indicators on transport and environment integration in the EU. TERM European Environment Agency, Copenhagen, Denmark, February 2000 European Commission, 1997: Energy for the Future: Renewable Sources of Energy. White Paper for a Community Strategy and Action Plan, COM (97) 599. Communication from the Commission of the European Communities. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Luxemburg, November 1997 European Commission, 2000a: A Review of the Auto Oil II Programme. Communication from the Commission. COM (2000) 262 final. Brussels, Belgium, 5 October European Commission, 2000b: Green Paper Towards a European strategy for the security of energy supply. COM (2000) 769. Commission of the European Communities. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. Luxemburg, Eurostat, 2001: Transport and Environment: Statistics for the Transport and Environment Reporting Mechanism (TERM) for the European Union, data European Commission in cooperation with Eurostat, Luxembourg {Version November 2000} OECD, 2000: est! synthesis report. Synthesis Report of the OECD project on Environmentally Sustainable Transport EST presented on occasion of the International est! Conference 4 th to 6 th October 2000, Vienna, Austria. Volkskrant, 2000: Hydrogen Fuels Amsterdam City Buses. Volkskrant 2 September 2000 [newspaper article]. Amsterdam, The Netherlands. References not referred to in text: LAT, 1998: Methodologies for Estimating Air Pollutant from Transport - Emission factors for future road vehicles. MEET deliverable 26 - final report (LAT report no: 9829). Laboratory for Applied Thermodynamics (LAT). Thessaloniki, Greece, December Version