Effectiveness of Tire-Tread Patterns in Reducing the Risk of Hydroplaning

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1 Effectiveness of Tire-Tread Patterns in Reducing the Risk of Hydroplaning T. F. Fwa, Santosh S. Kumar, Kumar Anupam, and G. P. Ong Grooving of tire tread is necessary to provide sufficient skid resistance for wet-weather driving and to reduce the risk of hydroplaning. Many different groove patterns of tire tread are found in the market. However, their relative effectiveness in reducing hydroplaning risk is generally not known to motorists and highway engineers. The effects of changes in the groove depth of a tire tread s groove pattern also deserve further investigation. This paper presents an analytical study that aims to characterize quantitatively the influence of different tire-tread patterns and groove depths on the hydroplaning behavior of passenger cars. The analysis is performed by means of a computer simulation model with a three-dimensional finite element approach. The following six forms of tire-tread groove patterns are considered: (a) longitudinal groove pattern, (b) transverse groove pattern, (c) V-groove pattern with 0 V-cut, (d) V-groove pattern with 40 V-cut, (e) combined groove pattern consisting of longitudinal grooves and edge horizontal grooves, and ( f ) combined groove pattern consisting of longitudinal grooves and 0 V-cut grooves. The analysis shows that a parameter computed as the groove volume per tread area of the tire is a useful performance indicator to assess the effectiveness of various tire-tread groove patterns in reducing vehicle hydroplaning risk. The significance of V-shape grooves is discussed. For vehicular operations involving both forward and lateral movements, the analysis indicates that a combined pattern would provide a good compromise in lowering hydroplaning risk sufficiently in different modes of vehicle movements. Vehicle hydroplaning is a major safety concern in wet-weather driving. Hydroplaning occurs when the traveling speed of a vehicle becomes so high that the hydrodynamic pressure of the water between its tires and the pavement surface rises and matches the tire inflation pressure. When this condition prevails, the tires become supported on the water film, and the driver loses braking and steering control of the vehicle (, ). Grooving of tire tread provides additional channels for discharging water away from the area of tire pavement contact and helps to retard the development of hydrodynamic pressure, thereby delaying the occurrence of hydroplaning. Many different groove patterns of tire tread are found in the market. However, their relative effectiveness in reducing hydroplaning risk is generally not known to motorists T. F. Fwa, S. S. Kumar, and K. Anupam, Department of Civil Engineering, National University of Singapore, 0 Kent Ridge Crescent, Singapore 960. G. P. Ong, School of Civil Engineering, Purdue University, Civil Engineering Building, 0 Stadium Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN, 4-0. Corresponding author: T. F. Fwa, cvefwatf@nus.edu.sg. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 094, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C., 009, pp DOI: 0.4/094-0 and highway engineers. The effects of changes in the geometric dimensions (such as groove depth) of a tire-tread groove pattern also deserve further investigation. It is the aim of this paper to present an analytical study to characterize quantitatively the influence of different tire-tread patterns and their groove dimensions on the hydroplaning behavior of passenger cars. Much experimental work has been conducted by FAA and FHWA to study the hydroplaning behaviors of rib tires (i.e., tires with longitudinal grooves) ( ). Independently, in the United Kingdom, Staughton and Williams have measured hydroplaning speed in various water depths on a smooth concrete surface to find the effects of water depth on the hydroplaning risks of tires with transverse grooves (6). However, because of the differences in test conditions and tire characteristics, the results for different tread patterns could not be compared directly. Gilbert has conducted experimental study on small-scale models of circumferential tread tire, but the measured data could not be easily scaled up to study the hydroplaning behaviors of actual tires (). These earlier studies do not provide a complete picture of the effects of different tread patterns on vehicle hydroplaning. It is proposed in this study to employ a theoretical approach on the basis of numerical simulation modeling to systematically analyze the effects of different tire-tread patterns on vehicle hydroplaning. The analysis is performed by means of a computer simulation model using a three-dimensional finite element approach. Three basic patterns of tire tread and their combinations are considered in this study. The three basic tire-tread patterns are the longitudinal groove pattern, the transverse groove pattern, and the V-groove pattern. The hydroplaning behaviors of tires with these tread patterns and their combinations are analyzed, and an attempt is made to identify a performance indicator to assess the relative effectiveness of different tire-tread patterns in reducing vehicle hydroplaning risk. SCOPE OF STUDY Objective of Study One of the major findings of past experimental studies was the beneficial effect of tire-tread grooving in reducing vehicle hydroplaning risk ( ). Unfortunately, full-scale experimental studies are time-consuming, human-power-intensive, and costly. The objective of this study is to perform a wider-coverage analysis by means of a theoretically derived analytical approach as opposed to the past experimental studies just described to identify how various tire-tread patterns affect the hydroplaning risk of passenger cars. Hydroplaning risk is evaluated by determining the hydroplaning speed. A lower hydroplaning risk is associated with a tire that has a higher hydroplaning speed. 9

2 9 Transportation Research Record 094 Tires with combinations of longitudinal grooves, transverse grooves, and V-shape grooves are commonly used in practice. To systematically analyze the effects of tire-tread designs, the following six forms of tire-tread patterns are considered:. Longitudinal groove pattern,. Transverse groove pattern,. V-groove pattern with 0 V-cut, 4. V-groove pattern with 40 V-cut,. Combined groove pattern consisting of longitudinal grooves and edge horizontal grooves, and 6. Combined groove pattern consisting of longitudinal grooves and V grooves of 0. Figure shows schematically the six tire-tread designs considered. The first four groove patterns would provide a basis for comparing the relative effectiveness of the basic tire-tread designs, while the last two groove patterns would provide some information on the benefits of combining different groove patterns. Study Parameters To offer a common basis for the analysis of different tire-tread designs, the ASTM E 0 standard G8- tire, with a cross-sectional radius of 9. mm and a tread width of 48.6 mm, is adopted for this study. The structural properties and geometric dimensions of the tire Tread width 48.6 mm Tread width 48.6 mm Cross-sectional radius 9. mm Rib width 6.8 mm Groove width.08 mm (a) (b) Cross-sectional radius 9. mm Rib width 6.8 mm Groove width.08 mm (c) (d) Cross-sectional radius 9. mm Rib width 6.8 mm Groove width.08 mm (e) (f) FIGURE Tire-tread groove patterns analyzed: (a) longitudinal groove pattern tire, (b) transverse groove pattern tire, (c) V-0 groove pattern tire, (d ) V-40 groove pattern tire, (e) longitudinal and edge transverse tread pattern, and (f ) longitudinal and V-0 cut groove pattern.

3 Fwa, Kumar, Anupam, and Ong 9 TABLE Summary of Study Parameters Adopted for Hydroplaning Analysis Parameter Passenger car tire Tire inflation pressure Wheel load Pavement surface Tire tread groove width Tire-tread rib width Tire-tread depth (i.e., groove depth) Water film thickness remain unchanged when each of the six tire-tread groove patterns is considered. To facilitate the comparison of the six tire-tread groove patterns, the same uniform groove and rib dimensions are used for all tire-tread designs considered. The width of each plain rib is 6.8 mm, with the ribs separated by straight grooves of.08 mm in width, and these dimensions are maintained unchanged for all cases. A tire inflation pressure of psi (86. kpa) and a wheel load of.4 kn are adopted for the present study. A smooth plane pavement surface is considered for all the analysis presented. This presents the worst case and is a conservative estimate of the hydroplaning speed for in-service pavements ( 4, 8). As depicted in Figure a, the longitudinal groove pattern features six uniformly spaced circumferential grooves. For the transverse groove pattern, each groove is perpendicular to the tread-radius arc, as shown in Figure b. For the cases of V-0 and V-40 cut tread grooving, each groove is inclined at an angle of 0 and 40, respectively, to the central symmetry line, as shown in Figures c and d. The combined groove pattern shown in Figure e is the case of longitudinal grooves combined with edge transverse grooves. Figure f presents the case of combined longitudinal and V-0 groove patterns. Besides the factors mentioned in the preceding paragraphs, it is known from past studies that the hydroplaning behaviors of tires are also affected by the groove depth of tire tread and by the thickness of water film present on the pavement surface. To establish the trend of variation of hydroplaning speed with tire-tread groove depth, the following six groove depths were considered for each of the six tiretread designs:,.0,.0,.0,.0,.0, and mm. The -mm groove depth is the maximum depth specified by the ASTM Standard E 0. Five water-film thicknesses were analyzed:.0,.0,.0,.0, and 0.0 mm for all the tread patterns considered. Table presents a summary of the values of study parameters adopted in this study. For each of the six tire-tread groove patterns, hydroplaning speeds were computed for combinations of groove depth and water-film thickness. DESCRIPTION OF SIMULATION MODEL Model Parameters Details ASTM E 0 standard G8- tire, with 9.-mm cross-sectional radius, and 48.6-mm tread width. 86. kpa.4 kn Smooth plane surface.08 mm for all tire tread groove patterns 6.8 mm for all tire tread groove patterns Values considered (mm):,.0,.0,.0,.0,.0, and. Values considered (mm):.0,.0,.0,.0 and 0.0 The hydroplaning phenomenon of a locked wheel with different tire-tread patterns sliding over a plane pavement surface covered with a film of water is analyzed in this paper. The case of a locked wheel is commonly adopted for testing and evaluation by researchers, because it represents the worst case for skid resistance and hydroplaning analysis ( 4, 8, 9). The hydroplaning simulation model used for the analysis is adapted from the three-dimensional finite element model developed earlier by Ong et al. (9). It is an analytical model based on computational fluid dynamics theory to simulate the fluid flow, and it takes into account the effects of turbulence and free surface fluid flow. The interaction between the fluid and tire, as well as the interaction between the fluid and the pavement surface, is considered in the analysis. In simulating the moving wheel, a frame of reference is adopted to model the layer of water and the pavement surface as moving at a speed toward the wheel. The model has been validated against the NASA hydroplaning equation for the case of smooth tires and also the measured hydroplaning speeds of rib tires (i.e., tires with longitudinal grooves) (, 8). The software FLUENT is employed for the analysis (0). The properties of water and air at 0 C are used in this study. The density, dynamic viscosity, and kinematic viscosity of water at 0 C are 998. kg/m,.00 0 Ns/m, and m /s, respectively (). The density, dynamic viscosity, and kinematic viscosity of air at the standard atmospheric pressure and 0 C are.04 kg/m,.8 0 Ns/m, and. 0 m /s, respectively (). Hydroplaning is assumed to occur when the average ground hydrodynamic pressure is equal to the tire pressure of the wheel; that is, when the hydrodynamic lift force is equal to the wheel load (8, 9, ). Finite Element Mesh Design In the finite element mesh design, six-node wedge elements and eight-node hexahedral elements were used to represent each finite volume in the simulation. Special attention was paid to the design of element size and mesh for the rib and groove and for the water layer between the tire and pavement surface. Convergence analysis was carried out with different numbers of eight-node hexahedral elements in the ribs, grooves, and in the smallest water channel in the model (i.e., the hydroplaning region). A key indicator of convergence for mesh design is the total uplift force, which is a direct function of the average hydrodynamic pressure. Different combinations of mesh elements in the ribs, grooves, and the smallest water channel have been tested to arrive at an optimal design to reach numerical convergence with an accuracy of within % for the uplift force. Figure presents a typical finite element mesh design for the case of a longitudinal groove pattern. The convergence analysis showed that 0 mesh elements in the rib cross-section and 0 mesh elements in the cross-section of the thinnest water film were required to reach the necessary numerical convergence for the case of the longitudinal groove pattern and also of the transverse groove pattern. For cases involving V grooves, it was found that mesh elements in the rib cross-section and mesh elements in the cross-section of the thinnest water film were necessary to reach the required numerical convergence. The possible cause for the increase in the number of elements for V grooves may be the more complex flow conditions involved. Figure shows the mesh designs in the tire pavement interface region for all the six cases analyzed. Taking advantage of geometric symmetry, only half the tire is modeled. The centerline of the wheel is treated as the plane of symmetry. The upstream boundary conditions consist of a pair of velocity inlets, one for water and another for air. A uniform velocity profile is used. The inlet is placed at a distance of 00 mm away from the leading edge of the wheel, so as to allow for any possible formation of bow wave. The side edges and the trailing edge are modeled as pressure outlets, with the pressure set as the atmospheric pressure.

4 94 Transportation Research Record 094 Pressure outlet Ribs Symmetry along center plane of the tire Tire front Velocity outlet for water Tire surface FIGURE Three-dimensional finite element model for longitudinal groove pattern. The top boundary is set as a pressure outlet at the atmospheric pressure and is placed.4 mm ( in.) above the top of the simulated tire. The locations of the boundaries have been chosen in such a way that they would not have any significant effect on the average ground hydrodynamic pressure under the wheel. ANALYSIS OF SIMULATION RESULTS Table lists the hydroplaning speeds obtained from the computer simulation analysis for all six tire-tread groove patterns. These results are plotted in Figure 4. In general, for all six tire-tread designs, hydroplaning speed rises as tread depth (i.e., groove depth) becomes deeper. This implies that that the common practice of controlling tire-tread depth to maintain sufficient skid resistance for wet-weather driving is also valid for hydroplaning control. The rate of increase in hydroplaning speed for each millimeter increase of tread depth generally varies from about. to. km/h per millimeter and does not change much among the different tread designs. Figure 4 also depicts the trends of hydroplaning speed variation with water-film thickness. The general falling trend of hydroplaning speed when the water-film thickness increases is common to all six tire-tread designs. This is in agreement with observations made in experimental studies by past researchers that hydroplaning risk rises with increasing surface water depth. It is observed that hydroplaning speed initially falls more or less linearly with an increase in water-film thickness until the thickness reaches about mm. Thereafter, the falling trend shows a tendency of leveling off at greater water-film thicknesses. For the linear portion of the trend curves, the rates of fall in hydroplaning speed for all tire-tread designs are found to vary from. to.6 km/h for each -mm increase of water-film thickness. To evaluate the relative effectiveness of the different tire-tread designs in reducing vehicle hydroplaning risks, the following further analyses are presented in the next subsections:. Comparison of the magnitudes of hydroplaning speeds of different tire-tread designs;

5 Fwa, Kumar, Anupam, and Ong 9 Symmetry along the center plane of the wheel (a) Symmetry along the center plane of the wheel (b) Symmetry along the center plane of the wheel (c) Symmetry along the center plane of the wheel (d) Symmetry along the center plane of tire (e) Symmetry along the center plane of tire (f) FIGURE Finite element mesh design for tire pavement interface of different groove patterns for (a) longitudinal groove pattern, (b) transverse groove pattern, (c) V-0 groove pattern, (d ) V-40 groove pattern, (e) longitudinal and edge transverse groove pattern, and (f ) longitudinal and V-0 groove pattern.. Evaluation of the effect of the inclination angle of V grooves on hydroplaning speed; and. Assessment of the effectiveness of tire-tread designs by considering the changes of hydroplaning speed as a function of groove volume per unit tread area. Comparison Based on Magnitudes of Hydroplaning Speeds The magnitude of hydroplaning speed is directly associated with the risk of hydroplaning. The higher the hydroplaning speed, the lower the risk of hydroplaning. It can be deduced from Figure 4 that for the four basic tread patterns studied, the ranking in increasing hydroplaning risk is as follows: transverse groove pattern with the least risk, followed by the V-40 groove pattern, the V-0 groove pattern, and then the longitudinal groove pattern, which has relatively the highest risk. These differences are better seen in the bar chart in Figure for three selected sets of the computed hydroplaning speeds at groove depths of,, and mm. The two combined patterns considered are effective in raising the hydroplaning speed (hence reducing hydroplaning risk) as compared with the basic pattern of longitudinal grooves. Adding edge transverse grooves to the longitudinal groove pattern improves the hydroplaning risk performance comparable to that of the V-40 grooves, and adding V-0 grooves to the longitudinal grove pattern brings the

6 96 Transportation Research Record 094 TABLE Hydroplaning Speeds of Tire Tread Groove Patterns at Different Water Film Thickness and Tire Groove Depths Hydroplaning Speed (km/h) Water Film Tire Groove Longitudinal Transverse V-0 V-40 Longitudinal and Edge Longitudinal and No. Thickness (mm) Depth (mm) Grooves Grooves Grooves Grooves Transverse Grooves V-0 Grooves hydroplaning risk down to the same level as that provided by the transverse groove pattern. The benefits of the two forms of combined groove patterns in reducing hydroplaning risk are of practical significance. Effect of Groove Inclination Angle on Hydroplaning Speed The computed results as shown in Table and Figures 4 and indicate that the orientation of tire tread grooving has a significant effect on the magnitude of hydroplaning speed. As depicted in Figure, the transverse groove pattern produced the highest hydroplaning speed, and the longitudinal groove pattern had the lowest hydroplaning speed. Intermediate values of hydroplaning speeds were obtained with the V-0 and V-40 groove patterns. The issue of longitudinal and transverse components of hydroplaning could possibly be investigated further with vector mechanics, as illustrated by the authors in an earlier paper dealing with the effectiveness of transverse and longitudinal pavement grooves against vehicle skidding (). Figure 6 presents a plot that shows the relative performance of these groove patterns as a function of groove inclination angle for a waterfilm thickness of 0 mm. The groove inclination angle refers to the angle between the centerline of the V-groove and the centerline of tire circumference. Hence, the groove inclination angle is 0 for longitudinal grooves and for transverse grooves. Figure 6 indicates that hydroplaning speed increases gradually when the groove inclination angle is increased from 0 to 0. From

7 Fwa, Kumar, Anupam, and Ong Water film thickness (mm) (a) (b) Water film thickness (mm) (c) Water film thickness (mm) (d) Water film thickness (mm) Water film thickness (mm) (e) Water film thickness (mm) (f) FIGURE 4 Variation of hydroplaning speed with water-film thickness for (a) longitudinal groove pattern, (b) transverse groove pattern, (c) V-0 grooves, (d ) V-40 grooves, (e) longitudinal and transverse edge grooves, and (f ) longitudinal and V-0 grooves.

8 98 Transportation Research Record Water film thickness = mm F B D E C A A B C Longitudinal grooves Transverse grooves V-0 grooves D V-40 grooves E Longitudinal & edge transverse grooves F Longitudinal & V-0 grooves B F D E C A 8 B F E D C A 80 Tire tread groove FIGURE Comparison of hydroplaning speeds of different tire-tread groove patterns at water film thickness of mm Water film thickness = 0mm Groove inclination angle in degrees G8- tubeless tire of belted bias construction (9.mm X 48.6mm) Smooth pavement surface Tire inflation pressure = 86. kpa FIGURE 6 Effect of groove inclination angle on hydroplaning speed [G8- tubeless tire of belted bias construction (9. mm 48.6 mm) on smooth pavement surface with tire inflation pressure of 86. kpa].

9 Fwa, Kumar, Anupam, and Ong 99 about 0 (or from about 0 for cases with groove depth of.0 mm or higher), the hydroplaning speed increases at a higher rate approximately linearly until the inclination angle reaches. This means that the mid-value hydroplaning speed occurs at an inclination angle slightly higher than 4. On paper, when V-grooves are used, the option could be chosen for an inclination angle of about 4, so as to achieve reasonable hydroplaning speeds for vehicles movements in both longitudinal and lateral directions. Transverse grooves will give very good protection against hydroplaning in the longitudinal direction but not in the transverse direction. Similarly, while longitudinal grooves provide relatively low protection against hydroplaning in the longitudinal direction, they offer good protection in the transverse direction. However, V-grooves with inclination angles higher than 40 and transverse grooves are rarely used in practice because of tire noise problems (4, ). From the earlier discussion on the hydroplaning speed, the combined pattern of longitudinal and V-0 grooves (see Table and Figures 4 and ) appears to provide a good design that offers a compromise between tire noise and hydroplaning risk. For hydroplaning risk, this combined groove pattern gives high hydroplaning speeds for both longitudinal and lateral vehicle movements. For longitudinal forward vehicle movements, as found in Table and Figure 4, it has high hydroplaning speeds comparable to that of transverse grooves. For lateral vehicle movements, longitudinal grooves would become favorable to give high hydroplaning speeds. Comparison Based on Groove Volume Evidence from work of past researchers has indicated that effective drainage at the tire pavement interface helps to relieve hydrodynamic pressures and raise the hydroplaning speed. It is thus logical to expect some form of relationship to exist between the hydroplaning speed and the groove volume available in the tire tread. With different quantitative indicators tried as a representation of tire-tread groove volume, this study determined that the ratio of groove volume to rib area provides the most suitable indicator for assessing the relative effectiveness of different tire-tread patterns in reducing hydroplaning risk. For illustration, the results for hydroplaning speeds computed for water-film thicknesses of mm and 0 mm are presented for discussion. Table summarizes the values of hydroplaning speeds for the tire-tread groove patterns studied, and the corresponding ratios of groove volume to rib area. These data are plotted in Figures a and b. In Figure, the ratio of groove volume to rib area can be considered as providing a basis for assessing the effectiveness of the total groove volume in raising the hydroplaning speed (i.e., reducing hydroplaning risk). When a hydroplaning speed curve is positioned high up in the plot, it means that the tire-tread groove pattern associated with it is effective in maintaining a low hydroplaning risk. In other words, on the basis of per unit groove volume, a tire-tread groove pattern that produces a higher curve in the plot is the one that more effectively protects against hydroplaning. The results as seen in Figure reveal that plotting hydroplaning speed against the ratio of groove volume to rib area enables differentiation of the relative effectiveness of the six tire-tread groove patterns considered. According to the two plots in Figure, the ranking in the order of decreasing effectiveness is as follows: Rank. Transverse groove pattern (most effective), Rank. Combined pattern of longitudinal and V-0 grooves, Rank. V-40 groove pattern, Rank 4. Combined pattern of longitudinal and edge transverse grooves, Rank. V-0 groove pattern, and Rank 6. Longitudinal groove pattern (least effective). This ranking is only valid for forward longitudinal vehicle movements. As explained earlier, the overall effectiveness of a tire-tread design against hydroplaning would have to be assessed by considering lateral vehicle movements as well. For instance, in the lateral sliding movements of vehicles, a tire with transverse grooves would have a higher risk than one with longitudinal grooves. The ranking of transverse groove pattern and longitudinal groove pattern would be reverse, with the transverse groove pattern now ranking last among the six tread patterns. In other words, a separate ranking of the six tread patterns has to be established by repeating the hydroplaning speed analysis for the case of lateral sliding of tires. The ranking derived using the ratio of groove volume to rib area is in general agreement with that obtained from the magnitudes of hydroplaning speeds. Although ultimately the hydroplaning risk of a tire-tread pattern is decided by the magnitude of hydroplaning speed, the ranking arrived at using the ratio of groove volume to rib area is useful in assessing the relative effectiveness of the groove volume in reducing hydroplaning risk. CONCLUSIONS This paper has presented a study to analyze the influence of tire-tread groove patterns on the hydroplaning characteristics of passenger car tires. Six different groove patterns of tire tread were studied, including a longitudinal groove pattern, a transverse groove pattern, a V-0 and a V-40 groove pattern, a combined longitudinal and edge transverse groove pattern, and a combined longitudinal and V-0 groove pattern. The hydroplaning analysis was performed by means of a computer simulation model using a three-dimensional finite element approach. The case of locked-wheel sliding on a plane pavement surface which is the most critical condition for hydroplaning consideration was analyzed. In general, hydroplaning speed was found to increase with groove depth of the tire tread and decrease as the pavement surface water-film thickness increased. For the six tire-tread designs analyzed, the rising rate of hydroplaning speed per unit increase of tread depth did not change much among the different tire-tread designs, with its value varying from about. to. km/h per mm for the range of water-film thickness ( to 0 mm) considered. Hydroplaning evaluation was performed by comparing the magnitudes of the computed hydroplaning speeds and also the effectiveness of tire-tread grooving in reducing hydroplaning risk on the basis of analysis of the ratio of groove volume to rib area. It was found that for forward sliding movements of a vehicle, the transverse groove pattern was the most effective, and the longitudinal groove pattern was the least effective, with the V-shaped groove patterns producing results in between these two extremes. The need to consider hydroplaning risk for lateral movements of vehicle and also tire noise were emphasized. The advantage of using V-shaped grooves to provide adequate hydroplaning risk protection for both forward and lateral movements of vehicle was highlighted. The analysis suggested that a combined tread pattern of longitudinal and V-shaped grooves was able to achieve good levels of hydroplaning risk protection for different modes of vehicle movements.

10 TABLE Computed Hydroplaning Speeds Against the Ratio of Groove Volume to Rib Area Longitudinal Groove Longitudinal and Edge Longitudinal and V-0 Transverse Groove Pattern Pattern V-0 Groove Pattern V-40 Groove Pattern Transverse Groove Pattern Groove Pattern Groove Groove Groove Groove Groove Groove Volume, Volume, Volume, Volume, Volume, Volume, Rib Area Hydroplaning Rib Area Hydroplaning Rib Area Hydroplaning Rib Area Hydroplaning Rib Area Hydroplaning Rib Area Hydroplaning (mm) Speed (km/h) (mm) Speed (km/h) (mm) Speed (km/h) (mm) Speed (km/h) (mm) Speed (km/h) (mm) Speed (km/h) Water Film Thickness = 0 mm, Tire Inflation Pressure = 86. kpa, Applied Load =,40 N Water Film Thickness = mm, Tire Inflation Pressure = 86. kpa, Applied Load =,40 N

11 Fwa, Kumar, Anupam, and Ong Transverse groove pattern V-40 groove pattern Longitudinal & Edge transverse groove pattern V-0 groove pattern Longitudinal groove pattern (a) Longitudinal & V-0 groove pattern G8- tubeless tire of belted bias construction (9.mm X 48.6mm) Smooth pavement surface Tire inflation pressure = 86. kpa Groove volume/rib area (mm) 0 40 Transverse groove pattern V-40 groove pattern Longitudinal & Edge transverse groove pattern V-0 groove pattern Longitudinal groove pattern Groove volume/rib area (mm) (b) Longitudinal & V-0 groove pattern G8- tubeless tire of belted bias construction (9.mm X 48.6mm) Smooth pavement surface Tire inflation pressure = 86. kpa FIGURE Effect of groove volume on hydroplaning for water film thickness of (a) 0 mm and (b) mm [G8- tubeless tire of belted bias construction (9. mm 48.6 mm) on smooth pavement surface with tire inflation pressure of 86. kpa].

12 0 Transportation Research Record 094 REFERENCES. Horne, W. B., and R. C. Dreher. Phenomena of Pneumatic Tire Hydroplaning. NASA TN D-06. NASA, Washington, D.C., 96.. Horne, W. B., and T. J. W. Leland. Influence of Tire Tread Pattern and Runway Surface Condition on Braking Friction and Rolling Resistance of a Modern Aircraft Tire. NASA TN D-6. NASA, Washington, D.C., 96.. Horne, W. B., and U. T. Joyner. Pneumatic Tire Hydroplaning and Some Effects on Vehicle Performance. In Proc., SAE International Automotive Engineering Congress, Detroit, Mich., Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pa., Hayes, G. G., D. L. Ivey, and B. M. Gallaway. Hydroplaning, Hydrodynamic Drag, and Vehicle Stability. ASTM Special Technical Report STP 9. ASTM, West Conshohocken, Pa., 98, pp Balmer, G. G., and B. M. Gallaway. Pavement Design and Controls for Minimizing Automotive Hydroplaning and Increasing Traction. ASTM Special Technical Report STP 9. ASTM, West Conshohocken, Pa., 98, pp Staughton, G. C., and T. Williams. Tyre Performance in Wet Surface Conditions. Road Research Laboratory Report LR. Road Research Lab, Crowthorne, Berkshire, United Kingdom, 90.. Wray, G. A. A Systematic Experimental Investigation of Significant Parameters Affecting Model Tire Hydroplaning. NASA CR-46. Davidson Laboratory, Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, N.J., Fwa, T. F., S. S. Kumar, G. P. Ong, and C. J. H. Huang. Analytical Modeling of Effects of Rib Tires on Hydroplaning. In Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 068, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C., 008, pp Ong, G. P., T. F. Fwa, and J. Guo. Modeling Hydroplaning and Effects of Pavement Microtexture. In Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No., Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C., 00, pp FLUENT 6.0 User Guide. Fluent Inc., Lebanon, New Hampshire, 00.. Chemical Rubber Company. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 69th ed. CRC Press, Cleveland, Ohio, Blevins, R. D. Applied Fluid Dynamics Handbook, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Inc., New York, Ong, G. P., and T. F. Fwa. Prediction of Wet-Pavement Skid Resistance and Hydroplaning Potential. In Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No. 00, Transportation Research Board of the National Academies, Washington, D.C., 00, pp Ge, J., Z. Wang, Y. Long, and R. Gall. Application of Tire/Road Noise in Tire Design. Paper In Proc., SAE 00 World Congress and Exhibition, SAE International, Detroit, Mich., Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pa., 00.. Tatsuo, F., K. Hiroshi, and O. Yasuo. Tread Groove Design to Reduce Tire/Road Noise. Journal of Japan Automobile Research Institute, Vol., No., 000, pp The Surface Properties Vehicle Interaction Committee sponsored the publication of this paper.

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